Chapter 1

 SAFETY AND HEALTH POLICY

1.1.   Objectives:

The major objectives are,

•       Identify the roles and responsibilities of managers, specialist health and safety personnel and other employees.

•       Co-ordinate activities to identify, analyze and implement solutions to potential safety problems.

•       Define arrangements for promoting, planning and controlling all aspects of health and safety in the workplace.

Chapter 2

CONSTRUCTION SITE SAFETY MANAGEMENT

2.1 Construction Safety Management:

Management is defined as conducting or supervising of something especially the executive functions of planning, organizing, coordinating, directing, controlling and supervising any industrial or business project or activity with responsibility for others.

Construction Safety Management is a structured management approach to managing safety, taking into account the organization’s specific structures and processes related to safety of operations, including accountabilities, policies and procedures. This begins with setting the organizational safety policy. Based on the management’s safety policy and strategy, the safety organization proceeds with planning, organizing, staffing, co-coordinating, communicating, budgeting for safety.

 2.2 Purpose /Areas of Safety Planning

•   To draft health and safety policy and environmental policy for the management.

•  To decide safety committee, its objectives and effective functioning.

• To decide safety targets like zero/minimum accidents, maximum working hours without accident, safety education, training and awareness  programs for the workers and the public.

•  Areas of hazards and their detection, inspection, audit, risk assessment and measures for their removal or minimization.

•  Accidents investigation, analysis, costs calculation and introducing safety measures to prevent their recurrence.

•  Organization structure, staff, key persons and their roles for safety.

•    Standards for safety equipment, tools, permissible exposures etc.

•    Preparation, rehearsal and updating of on-site emergency plans.

i)  OSH objectives

Consistent with the OSH policy, measurable OSH objectives should be established, which are:

• Specific to the organization, and appropriate to and according to its size and nature of activity;

• Consistent with the relevant and applicable national laws and regulations, and the technical and business obligations of the organization with regard to OSH;

• Focused towards continually improving workers’ OSH protection to achieve the best OSH performance;

• Realistic and achievable;

• documented, and communicated to all relevant functions and levels of the Organization; and periodically evaluated and if necessary updated.

ii)   Hazard Prevention and control measures

Hazards and risks to workers’ safety and health should be identified and assessed on an ongoing basis. Preventive and protective measures should be implemented in the following order of priority:

• Eliminate the hazard/risk;

• Control the hazard/risk at source, through the use of engineering controls or organizational measures.

• Minimize the hazard/risk by the design of safe work systems, which include administrative control measures; and

• Where residual hazards/risks cannot be controlled by collective measures, the employer should provide for appropriate personal protective equipment, including clothing, at no cost, and should implement measures to ensure its use and maintenance.     

iii)  Controlling Risk

Risk control is the process of continually assessing the condition of the project and developing options to permit alternative solutions. Project managers should take care to identify consequences that are likely to occur and any indicators of the start of the problem.

The following are some suggestions for risk control:

•          Continually update the risk management plan.

•          Implement risk avoidance actions.

•          Implement risk contingency actions.

•          Report on each risk issue.

3.2   Organizing for Safety

The term 'organization' is used in management in different ways

•   It refers an activity, process or function of management i.e. organizing.

•   It is used in a dynamic way referring to a process by which the structure is created, maintained and used.

•  It is used in a static way referring a static structure (skeleton) of responsibilities and authorities i.e. relationships among individuals and positions in an organization.

i)  Safety Organization

Safety organization can be defined as the structure and process by which groups of people are divided into sections or departments, each section or department is assigned specific safety function or duty.

• Authority and responsibility of everybody is clearly defined and interrelationship between them is specified for the accomplishment of organizational safely goals.

•  A large unit may have safely department which may have groups of people for division of such safety function and responsibilities.

•  But in a small unit (majority) if such division is not possible and only a few persons are available for safety work, they will be assigned specific duty and other departmental heads (production, purchase, personnel etc.) will be explained their role and responsibility towards safety goals.

•  All supervisors shall be integrated with safety as part of their duty.

A)  Directing for Safety

• It is a part of the management process which guides, inspires, instructs and harnesses people to work effectively and efficiently to achieve the goals.

• Once the objectives are decided and planning is made how to achieve them, organization structure is designed by staff, appointing qualified and experienced

• persons and the organization can be said ready for action. But this action cannot begin until orders and instructions are issued i.e. the employees are 'directed' to carry the orders. This process of inspiring and guiding people what to do and how to do the best of their ability is known as 'directing'.

B)   Controlling for Safety

To complete the management cycle, it is important to know about the function of controlling after knowing about planning, organizing, staffing and directing.

Thus, controlling is aimed at

•  Monitoring the outcome of activities

• Reviewing feedback about this outcome and

• If necessary, take corrective action to achieve the outcome according to the plan.

Control function is closely connected to planning. It can be said an effective counterpart to planning. Using these definitions, controlling for safety can be defined as "a process that verifies and guides activities towards predetermined (planned) safety goals and takes necessary action, if required, to achieve the goals.

i)     Its main purpose is

• To measure progress

• To uncover deviations or change, delegation, mistakes, complexity etc., and

• To indicate corrective action.

ii) Benefits: It offers

• Guide to operations

• Policy verification

• Managerial accountability

• Employee morale

• Psychological pressure and

• Co-ordination in action.

3.1  Job site Safety

Various measures are available to improve jobsite safety in construction industries. Several of such measures supposed to occur before construction is undertaken.

These include

•  Design,

• Choice of technology and

• Education.

By altering designs, particular structures can be made safer or more hazardous to construct. For example, parapets can be designed to appropriate heights for construction worker safety, rather than the minimum height required by building codes.

Choice of technology can also be critical in determining the safety of a jobsite. Safeguards built into machinery can notify operators of problems or prevent injuries. For example, simple switches can prevent equipment from being operating when protective shields are not in place i.e. when machine guards are removed, immediately machine stops working.

Educating and training to the workers in proper procedures and hazards can have a direct impact on jobsite safety. By providing safety training

•  You can avoid the workplace accidents and health issues.

•  You can understand the financial costs of accidents in the workplace involved in construction injuries.

• You will avoid damaged products, loss in site and injured staff.

Regular safety inspections and safety meetings have become standard practices on most job sites. Pre-qualification of contractors and sub-contractors with regard to safety is another important opportunity for safety improvement. If contractors are only invited to bid if they have an acceptable record of safety, then adequate safety on the part of contractors is ensured.

During the construction process itself, the most important safety related measures are to insure vigilance and cooperation on the part of managers, inspectors and workers. Vigilance involves considering the risks of different working practices. In also involves maintaining temporary physical safeguards such as barricades, braces, guy lines, railings, toe boards and the like.

Improving worksite safety is very important in construction sites due to the following reasons

• Job site is continually changing as construction progresses.

• Workers do not have fixed worksites and must move around a structure under construction.

• The worker's familiarity in site is less compared to manufacturing site the employer- employee relationship are less settled compared to manufacturing site as the tenure of a worker on a site is short.

Chapter 4

ACCIDENT REPORTING AND INVESTIGATION

4.1   ACCIDENT REPORTING

Accidents in construction has always been a matter of concern for the not only the Government but also for the employer and contractors, as construction sector workforce are migrating & casual in nature, mostly not on pay-role. This is because, a major constraint of variation in the manpower requirement on daily basis it is not feasible for the employer/contractor to employ permanent workers. Also, another constraint with the employer/contractor is that at various stages of construction the activities varies and so do the set of skill required in workers, resulting in requirement of different group of workers at different stages and this variation is significant & rapid. And also, construction sector is mostly project based sector, wherein not only new infrastructure development but also maintenance is now a day outsourced on requirement basis. Finally, the workers when are not getting permanent/regular employment migrates from one employer/ location/ construction site to other and are also not solely dependent on construction work employment. All the above factors contribute to construction sector being broadly unorganized.

Being an unorganized sector accident reporting and investigation is crucial and critical in construction industry due to following major reasons, but not restricted to:

1.      Most of the construction activities are not notified and establishments are not registered

2.      Details of construction workers are not maintained appropriately by the employer

3.      Track of witness is difficult because of migrating workforce.

4.      Lack of adequate training and awareness on OSH in every level.

5.      It is extremely difficult for the monitoring authority to keep a close eye on each and every construction site.

Reporting of the accident can be broadly classified under following two categories:

1.  Statutory Reporting – Statutory reporting of the accident in construction is governed by the building and other Construction Workers’ (Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service) Act, 1996 & the Delhi Building and other Construction Workers’ (Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service) Rules, 2002 and The Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, 2020.

Following are required to be reported to the concerned authorities

a.      Accident

b.      Dangerous occurrences

c.       Occupational diseases

d.      Poisoning

Accidents in the statutes refer to those incidents that result to fatality, disability or absence from duty for more than 48 hours.

Based on the respective law applicable any incident if occurs are to be reported to following as per the relevant statutory provisions to the respective authorities:

i.    Inspector

ii.   Chief Inspector

iii.   District Magistrate

iv.    Local Police Station

v.    Relatives of victim(s)

Reporting of accident –The Employer is required to send a notice of any accident in the prescribed format within the stipulated time to the concerned authorities under the Delhi Building and Other Construction Workers (RE & CS) Rules, 2002.

4.2   ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

Investigation is the scientific and academic analysis of the facts that occurred during an accident with a purpose is to find,

•  Root cause of an incident

•   Corrective measures to avoid recurrence.

To identify root causes of an incident it is required to understand following terms in line with the view of an investigator:

1.  Hazard as defined is ‘anything that has the potential to injure or harm’. Based on the effect hazards can be classified in two types:

a.      Hazards to Safety - Cause an immediate injury/harm.

b.      Hazards to Health - Cause harm by exposure over time mostly health effect.

Based on where the potential of the hazard lies and can be initiated from, hazards   can be groups in following three groups:

a.      Physical Object Hazard – If potential is in the object itself when touched or inhaled can result in harmful effect. For example, sharp edge object, hot surface, reactive chemical, toxic gases, moving heavy object, exposed charged electric connection, tripping object in walkway, etc.

b.      Hazardous Work Type – Where work itself is hazardous in nature like confined space working, working at height, underwater working, midstream working, working in extreme weather conditions, etc. For example, hazards in welding operation on a structure carried out in a normal condition (i.e. in an open area on a ground with no moisture on the ground) will vary significantly to the same welding operation if carried out at a height with scaffold or in confined space or in the same location just after a heavy rain. Such type of work requires permits, specific qualification of workers and relevant additional safety measures.

c.       Unsafe Acts – If action of an individual (i.e. either worker working in a job or someone in the vicinity/allied job) has a potential to lead to harmful effect, root cause will not be the object with which or the conditions in which the accident happened, but the wrong action i.e. unsafe act will be the root cause. For example, over speeding of vehicle, use of wrong tools, bypassing limit switched, un-insulated electric connection, un-ergonomic work posture, etc. To address this legislative &/or company norms are defined, breach of which attracts penalties.

2.  Mechanism of Injury– It is the method in which an injury/loss occurs i.e. sequence in an event from very first step of initiation of potential of hazard, right through its propagation and transmission, to its end result of injury/loss. Every hazard may lead to one or more injury. Following elements cover the ways an injury/loss can occur.

a.      Slips/trips

b.      Struck against/by

c.       Contact with/by

d.      Caught in/on/by/between

e.      Exposure to

f.        Fall to same/lower level.

To identify root causes of an incident it is required to understand following terms in line with the view of an investigator:

3.  Hazard as defined is ‘anything that has the potential to injure or harm’. Based on the effect hazards can be classified in two types:

a.      Hazards to Safety - Cause an immediate injury/harm.

b.      Hazards to Health - Cause harm by exposure over time mostly health effect.

Based on where the potential of the hazard lies and can be initiated from, hazards can be groups in following three groups:

d.      Physical Object Hazard – If potential is in the object itself when touched or inhaled can result in harmful effect. For example, sharp edge object, hot surface, reactive chemical, toxic gases, moving heavy object, exposed charged electric connection, tripping object in walkway, etc.

e.      Hazardous Work Type – Where work itself is hazardous in nature like confined space working, working at height, underwater working, midstream working, working in extreme weather conditions, etc. For example, hazards in welding operation on a structure carried out in a normal condition (i.e. in an open area on a ground with no moisture on the ground) will vary significantly to the same welding operation if carried out at a height with scaffold or in confined space or in the same location just after a heavy rain. Such type of work requires permits, specific qualification of workers and relevant additional safety measures.

f.        Unsafe Acts – If action of an individual (i.e. either worker working in a job or someone in the vicinity/allied job) has a potential to lead to harmful effect, root cause will not be the object with which or the conditions in which the accident happened, but the wrong action i.e. unsafe act will be the root cause. For example, over speeding of vehicle, use of wrong tools, bypassing limit switched, un-insulated electric connection, un-ergonomic work posture, etc. To address this legislative &/or company norms are defined, breach of which attracts penalties.

4.  Mechanism of Injury– It is the method in which an injury/loss occurs i.e. sequence in an event from very first step of initiation of potential of hazard, right through its propagation and transmission, to its end result of injury/loss. Every hazard may lead to one or more injury.

To identify root causes of an incident it is required to understand following terms in line with the view of an investigator:

5.      Hazard as defined is ‘anything that has the potential to injure or harm’. Based on the effect hazards can be classified in two types:

a.      Hazards to Safety - Cause an immediate injury/harm.

b.      Hazards to Health - Cause harm by exposure over time mostly health effect.

Based on where the potential of the hazard lies and can be initiated from, hazards can be groups in following three groups:

g.      Physical Object Hazard – If potential is in the object itself when touched or inhaled can result in harmful effect. For example, sharp edge object, hot surface, reactive chemical, toxic gases, moving heavy object, exposed charged electric connection, tripping object in walkway, etc.

h.      Hazardous Work Type – Where work itself is hazardous in nature like confined space working, working at height, underwater working, midstream working, working in extreme weather conditions, etc. For example, hazards in welding operation on a structure carried out in a normal condition (i.e. in an open area on a ground with no moisture on the ground) will vary significantly to the same welding operation if carried out at a height with scaffold or in confined space or in the same location just after a heavy rain. Such type of work requires permits, specific qualification of workers and relevant additional safety measures.

i.         Unsafe Acts – If action of an individual (i.e. either worker working in a job or someone in the vicinity/allied job) has a potential to lead to harmful effect, root cause will not be the object with which or the conditions in which the accident happened, but the wrong action i.e. unsafe act will be the root cause. For example, over speeding of vehicle, use of wrong tools, bypassing limit switched, un-insulated electric connection, un-ergonomic work posture, etc. To address this legislative &/or company norms are defined, breach of which attracts penalties.

6.      Mechanism of Injury– It is the method in which an injury/loss occurs i.e. sequence in an event from very first step of initiation of potential of hazard, right through its propagation and transmission, to its end result of injury/loss. Every hazard may lead to one or more injury. Following elements cover the ways an injury/loss can occur.

a.      Slips/trips

b.      Struck against/by

c.       Contact with/by

d.      Caught in/on/by/between

e.      Exposure to

f.        Fall to same/lower level.

7.  Incident – An incident is an unplanned, undesired event that adversely affects completion of a task. The affects can be an injury, property damage, health problem, interruption of process, system/machine breakdown, etc. Incident is a

8.  universal set of all events that can lead to a loss or injury including the indicators

to such events i.e. near miss. Every incident is required to be investigated including near miss to ensure any untoward events should not reoccur because of same cause(s). There are basically three categories in which causes of incidents can be categorized into, they are:

a.      Unsafe Act

b.      Unsafe Condition

c.       Failure of system, equipment or machinery

Details of terminologies discussed above will aid in finding the root cause of the incident under investigation and also to determine the corrective actions to address the issues for good. Investigation is a method to identify facts and figures of the incident so that following can be revealed:

1.      What happened?

2.      How it happened?

3.      How it would have been avoided?

The Delhi Building and Other Construction Workers ‘(Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service) Rules, 2002 provides for the ‘Procedure for enquiry into causes of accident or dangerous occurrence’, which is to be carried out by the concern responsible under the law for certain cases. However, as every incident has to be investigated, methodology in revealing the above details is a five-step activity. Following are the 05 steps to be followed in the investigation:

1.      Analyze the injury

As soon as the report of the incident is received by the concern responsible for investigation, the victim(s) should be immediately visited and the injuries should be analyzed for its type and severity. Type of injury indicated the type of hazard along with severity of injury indicates the potential of the hazard. Following can be revealed during this step:

a.   Whether the injury is restricted to single victim or extends to multiple individual;

b.   Whether it is due to exposure to hazardous substance;

c.    Whether it was due to sharp edged object or impact of an object;

d.   How deep is the injury;

e.   Whether it is external injury or internal; etc.

2.      Interview victim and witnesses

Victim(s) and witnesses should be interviewed at the earliest possible so that investigation is benefited from the freshness of the memory which will ensure maximum and accurate inputs. As far as possible those interviewed should not be provided with opportunity to discuss the matter too much with others or their view may get influenced by opinion of others in the matter and they may get confused about their own observations.

The interview should reveal the facts about what, how, when, where and why it happened. In order to get clear picture of the event at the end of this step, the investigator should be in a position to answers following questions:

a.   What was victim(s) doing at the time?

b.   Whether he was supposed to do that job?

c.    Whether SOP for the job is available?

d.   Whether SOPs were followed?

e.   Whether proper instructions were given?

                f.     Whether appropriate tools and equipment’s used?

g.   Whether job was effectively supervised?

h.   Where did the incident happen?

i.      What were the steps involved?

j.      What was the condition around at the time?

k.    What where witnesses doing at the time?

l.      Who identified the incident first?

m. What was the response?

n.   How it could have been avoided?

These are not the questions for those interviewed, but detailed answers to the questions should be available with investigators by the end of interview. The questions of interview will vary from incident to incident and person to person. The sequence and set of questions will depend upon the response of the person interviewed.

Generally, it is human tendency to avoid trouble and it is preconceived notion that becoming potential witness by talking and revealing much will put me to the trouble. This does not only restrict to the witnesses but in some cases victim(s) also have the same state of mind. Therefore, investigator has to first gain the trust of the victim(s) and witnesses before proceeding to the interviews.

3.   Analyze the scene

The scene should be analyzed to gather information about

a.      The conditions of infrastructure, material, machine, equipment’s, tools and workplace environment

b.      Resemblance to the statement of victim(s) & witnesses

c.       Source of initiation of event

d.      What safety preventive measures was present

e.      Where & why safety preventive measures failed

This step provides for the evidence to the event. The evidence can be a detail or physical object. Details can be in form of data, status or condition. The same should be kept in record as document or photograph for further review. The details provided during interview should be cross verified during this step. The details in interview will also support in a way as to where to look for the evidence.

   4.      Determine the cause(s)

There are various ways to determine the causes of the incident, some of the methods used are:

a.      Root cause analysis

b.      Why-Why analysis

c.       Fault tree analysis

d.      Failure Mode Effective analysis

e.      Fish-bone diagram

Most common among them is root cause analysis. All the information gathered using previous steps are to be used for determining the cause of the incident. The purpose should be to identify the source of the event.      

                    There can be more than one cause and most possibly causes contributing during the intermediate steps of the event can also come into                         existence which should also be considered equally.

     5.      Identify corrective actions

Once cause(s) to the incident has been determined the corrective actions to avoid reoccurrence of any further incident due to the same cause(s) should be identified. There can be two types of corrective actions that can be taken:

a. Temporary/Immediate

b. Permanent/Long term

A temporary corrective action are meant for instant control but is not the true solution of the issue, however imminent danger can be addressed for the time being till permanent solution is not implemented. For permanent corrective action the matter should be deliberately discussed and effective solution to the issue should be identified and put in to implementation.

A follow-up of the matter is a critical element in investigation. Follow-up should include the following:

a.      From victim about the condition, recovery and assistance

b.      For implementation of corrective actions both immediate and permanent

Finally, the all details of investigation should be documented and records of the same should be kept for legal compliances and future review. The records should include

1.      Investigation Report.

2.      Statement of victim and witnesses.

3.      Evidences collected at the scene.

4.      Statutory formats.

5.      Segregated records.

5.1.1  MISCELLANEOUS HEALTH AND SAFETY HAZARDS ON CONSTRUCTION SITE

•    Height.

•  Slips and trips

•  Equipment, machinery, tools and transport.

Chapter 6

STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURE (SOP) AND WORK PERMIT SYSTEM

6.1.  Introduction

All the works exposed by the construction workers has some degree of hazard. This degree of hazard determines the type of safeguards required to protect the worker. Most routine work has defined standard operating procedures. Many job tasks that expose workers to serious hazards are non-routine, maintenance-type activities that must be managed to control risks. These hazards are controlled through written standard operating procedure and work permits.

Standard operating procedures and Safe work permits are administrative controls and it must be developed, implemented, and managed properly in order to be effective at managing risk.

6.2.  Standard Operating Procedure

Construction is an industry filled with potential dangers. The good news is that you can minimize them by using the appropriate safe work practices.

• Awareness

Before any worker no matter his or her role or experience level can set foot on a construction site, he or she must be fully aware of the possible hazards. Ignorant workers are perhaps the biggest dangers in any industry, as their unknowing mistakes put everyone else at risk. Understanding of perils at hand and sustaining a perpetual state of alertness is perhaps the number-one best way to prevent accidents. Every single person that steps foot onto a construction site should be aware of the risks associated with the job and how to prevent them with their knowledge of construction site safety.

It is the construction manager’s job to make sure that every worker is aware of the dangers that come with working on a construction site and they must protect workers from these dangers. Any manager that fails to tell their crew and staff about how to avoid getting hurt and how to ensure safety is failing as a manager. Ensuring the safety of the construction workers and everyone on the site should be the number one priority of any construction manager. If the workers have no concept of construction site safety, they shouldn’t be allowed on the construction site.

• Minimize and manage risk

Due to the nature of construction work, it's impossible to eliminate all safety risks. However, many common safety issues can be avoided by conducting regular safety audits and having procedures in place to report, assess and address potential risks.              

• Site security

Restricted site access should not only be put in place to simply protect equipment from damage or theft. Security in and outside of work hours is integral to protect pedestrians from potential construction hazards. This includes supervision or authorized site visitors.

Strict security and safety protocols will also protect contractors from liability and negligence in the case of a safety incident or security breach.

• Entry and exit points

Separate entry and exit points should be established for heavy machinery/vehicle access, to strengthen pedestrian safety at high traffic points.

• Standard operating procedure assessment

Standard operating procedure be prepared for all high risk construction projects, before work commences. The SWMS should outline the scope of work involved, any potential safety issues, and how risks will be prevented and managed.

The site SWMS should be clearly displayed at the construction site, so that all safety protocols are readily available including a 24 hour emergency contact number and a map or directions to the site office. Visible signage should also indicate site amenities (such as toilets), entry and exit points, and first aid or emergency fire equipment.

• Documentation

To enforce construction site safety, you have to make sure you have proper documentation of everything that is going to be done on-site. There are some legal hoops most construction companies must jump through to begin building, and it is essential that all proper registrations and licenses are earned before work begins. Supervisors and contractors who will be charged with particularly difficult tasks, like blasting, certainly should provide evidence of their certification well in advance of their employment on the job site. Not only does this prevent accidents due to improper training, but it protects the construction firm from legal action and public scrutiny. Any safety hazards that make their way to the media will look bad for construction firms.

No construction worker wants to work for a construction firm that doesn’t put its worker’s safety first. Any news of workers getting hurt on the job due to lack of safety practices will have new prospects running away from your construction firm. Implementing measures to practice construction site safety methods prevents falls and such things from happening. For falls, there are a number of factors including the failure or misuse of protection equipment, unstable working surfaces, and human error. Also, documenting all work in the field using cloud and mobile technology is making it easier than ever before to mitigate future lawsuits.

• Communication

Accidents are more likely to   occur   when   workers   are   unsure   what   to   expect. Direct discussion of the day’s goals and activities will cut down on surprises that could cause bodily harm. Construction firms would be wise to equip workers with devices, like smart phones, walkie-talkies, or headsets, which allow fast and efficient communication

among team members. Without proper communication between everyone on the construction site, workers won’t know what to expect. Clear and concise communication with everyone not only makes the project go by faster but also helps keep each person informed. Informing the staff and making sure everyone is doing their job is a proper way to communicate and make sure they understand construction site safety.

• Environmental conditions

Extreme weather conditions can cause serious safety hazards. On-site emergency plan should provide clear guidelines for workers who need to stop work in the event of natural disaster, severe environmental conditions or other emergency circumstances.

• Falling objects

It is your responsibility to secure objects onsite and minimize   the   risk   of   them falling. Construction safety doesn't end once the project is completed, and your workers have gone home. All parties involved in the construction process have a responsibility in ensuring that the right equipment and quality materials are used, so that safety risks are avoided long into the future.

• Supervision

Ideally, construction workers would fully understand the ramifications of inadequate safety precautions and thus act in a manner to ensure site-wide well-being but this is not a perfect world. Every site must have a strong supervisor who is willing and capable of enforcing safety standards with no exceptions. This foreman must keep tabs on all employees throughout the day and correct those who fail to commit to proper construction site safety procedures.

• Conduct daily site inspections and safety meetings

Jobsites should be inspected before and after each workday to address any safety concerns such as tools left lying around or damaged equipment. Jobsites should also be inspected throughout the day to identify any potential hazards and monitor workers to make sure they are working safely.

Hold a brief safety meeting before work begins each day to go over what tasks are scheduled to be performed along with the safety procedures to be followed. Be sure to address any concerns or issues and acknowledge the good practices observed from the prior day.

Good or bad, your company already has a safety culture, but there’s always room for improvement. Having a rock-solid safety culture means making the commitment to put safety first. Instituting programs and procedures that reinforces that commitment takes time, employee engagement and making adjustments to improve.

• Implement good housekeeping practices

Housekeeping and worksite safety go hand-in-hand to make one of the most important construction safety practices. Housekeeping practices implies that a workplace is kept in an organized, uncluttered, and hazard-free condition. Housekeeping is an essential component to workplace safety and sometimes it is disregarded.

Poor housekeeping can contribute to on-site accidents. Construction sites should be cleaned of any clutter, debris, spills and dust. Organization is just as important as cleanliness, with good housekeeping practices, accidents like tripping over loose objects or slipping on wet surfaces can be avoided. Keeping a site clean and organized is an ongoing operation and should be done throughout the workday.

• Establish a strong safety culture

You don’t want potential or current workers to get the impression that you only care about safety if regulatory authorities threaten to issue fines for non-compliance. Use your words and actions to demonstrate that staying safe is an ongoing priority. Make it so that people quickly associate excellent safety measures with your company.

You might hold monthly team meetings that reward people for working safely and urge attendees to weigh in with their thoughts about how to make improvements. Many companies also keep running tallies of the number of working hours completed without incidents. Seeing the total rise keeps people motivated and highlights how preventing accidents is a collective effort.

6.3.  Work Permit System

A safe work permit is a written record that authorizes specific work, at a specific work location, for a specific time period. The permits are used for controlling and co-ordinating work to establish and maintain safe working conditions. They ensure that all foreseeable hazards have been considered and that the appropriate precautions are defined and carried out in the correct sequence. The work permit is an agreement between the issuer and the receiver that documents the conditions, preparations, precautions, and limitations that need to be clearly understood before work begins.

Further, the permit to work is a documented management system to ensure work is done safely and efficiently.

Usefulness of work permit

Work permits provide written information on the prevalent hazards connected with the job performance. It spells out the suitable remedial measures to be adopted to encounter the hazardous conditions that are prevailing or that can be encountered while performing the job. It also stipulates various conditions and limitations on the part of personal protective equipment to be used at different stages of work.

It is important to note that a safe work permit does not reduce risks of incidents by itself. Rather, it specifies the hazards and the risk control measures that workers must be aware of, before they start work.

In General, the following will get the benefits from a work permit program,

•  Any construction site that has a significant risk because of particular hazards.

•  Any prime contractor who lets out or sub-contracts work to others to do maintenance or other hazardous work.

• Organizations that have individual employees working in isolated areas and performing non-routine work.

Works that require permit

Normally all maintenance, repair, construction work shall be carried out with a proper work permit. Jobs where work permit is required include but not limited to followings:

•      Major and minor maintenance work

•        Inspection

•      Construction

•         Alteration

•        Any hot work

•        Cleaning activities of process equipment

•         Entry into confined space

•        Excavation

•        Vehicle entry into process areas

•         Work at height

•       Handling of materials using mechanized means in operating areas

•         Erection and dismantling of scaffold

•         Isolation and energization of electric equipment/ facilities

Who issues permits & to whom

Permits are issued by supervisors having proprietary responsibility of areas and equipment’s. It is generally issued in the name of a Supervisor or Technician who is to carry out the required job under the known hazardous conditions. The various stages of work permit system are as follows.

A permit contains written information and instructions pertaining to hazards that are to be avoided in a particular operation. It indicates that all hazards have been considered in advance and that foreseeable appropriate precautionary measures have been taken. People responsible to execute a job defined in the permit are to review them from the point of compliance.

The general Information contains in the work permit are:

•         Exact work locations.

•         Work to be done.

•          Date and time the work is to start and end Hazards.

•         Correct sequence of work procedures.

•        Personal protective equipment required.

•        Emergency equipment needed.

•        Signature of authorized person(s).

•         The precautions to be taken.

•         Date and time the permit is issued.

•          Preparatory requirements, such as testing, equipment and machinery to be shut down/locked out, ventilation, etc.

6.4.  TYPES OF WORK PERMIT

Depending on the type of construction work and the hazardous operations carried out, various types of permits have been developed to suit the needs. However, the most commonly used permits are:

a)                  Hot Work Permit or Fire permit

b)                  Confined Space Entry Permit or Safe Entry Permit

c)                  Excavation Permit

d)                  Electrical Work Permit

e)                  Safe Work Permit or Work at Height Permit- and so on

Permits and their issue

a) Hot Work Permit or Fire permit

Hot work permits are used when heat or sparks are generated by work such as welding, burning, cutting, riveting, grinding, drilling, and where work involves the use of pneumatic hammers and chippers, non-explosion proof electrical equipment (lights, tools, and heaters), and internal combustion engines. Three types of hazardous situations need to be considered when performing hot work:

(a)   The presence of flammable materials in the equipment;

(b)   The presence of combustible materials that burn or give off flammable vapors when heated; and

(c) The presence of flammable gas in the atmosphere, or gas entering from an adjacent area, such as sewers that have not been properly protected. (portable detectors for combustible gases can be placed in the area to warn workers of the entry of these gases.)

It will be the responsibility of the originator, i.e. the Operating Department to make the area or equipment, (where hot work is intended to be carried out) free from fire hazard and explosion. Therefore, before a hot work permit is released, generally the following points are given utmost consideration:

   a)  The equipment/area and their surroundings are tested to determine the explosive range. This can be achieved by testing with an explosive meter or taking air samples and tested in the Laboratory. In case of presence of explosive mixture in the air, no hot work will be permitted till such time the area is made free of explosive content by cleaning, ventilating, purging etc.

    b)   All pits, pumps, openings etc. in the vicinity of construction sites are covered with fire proof material to prevent sparks entering and causing explosion and fire.

     c)      The area and the surrounding are sufficiently wetted to facilitate extinguishment of sparks, hot slugs etc as they fall.

     d)     Adequate first-aid and fire-fighting equipment are kept readily available for use in case of need. If the crew carrying out the repair work do not know how to operate the firefighting equipment, men with firefighting knowledge are made available at the work spot during the repair work.

b) Confined Space Entry Permit or Safe Entry Permit

No person shall be permitted to enter into a place classified as a confined space unless and until all measures have been taken to make the equipment/vessel adequately safe for working.

Usually, the Supervisor having the proprietary control over the equipment/vessel issues a Safe Entry Permit and authorizes entry and work in, on and around a confined space. Before issuing such a permit, it will be his responsibility –

a)     To isolate the equipment/vessel from all sources, through which any energy, stock or harmful substances can get introduced, by disconnecting, blinding, blanking etc.

b)    To drain, clean, wash and purge the equipment / vessel to make it free from toxic gases and other harmful substances.

c)     To test the air inside the vessel to determine presence of explosive mixture, oxygen content etc.

c)  Electrical Work Permit

Work on electrical installations, equipment’s and apparatus is considered to be very hazardous. Therefore, it is of utmost importance that sufficient safety precautions are taken before carrying out any work on, electrical circuits, lines and equipment’s. More so, when the power is of high voltage. Hence, to exercise greater control over such work and to ensure that adequate precautionary measures are taken before commencement of work on electrical equipment, an Electrical Work Permit known as ‘Permit-to-work’ has been developed.

Before issuing permit-to-work and authorizing work, the originator ensures that the apparatus concerned is made dead, isolated from all live conductors and has been connected to earth. To make an apparatus/equipment dead, all the relevant switches, isolators, breakers, fuses, back fee switches etc. are opened out and the isolated section earthed at each isolation point.

d) Safe work Permit or Work at Height Permit

Many accidents are caused due to falls while working at heights and roof tops. Most of the accidents result in fatalities or very severe injuries. These phenomena are more acute in construction industries. Therefore, to put a curb on the rising trend of fall accidents it was felt necessary to bring about certain controls over such works and provide adequate safe guards for the people working at higher elevations.

6.5.  General work permit procedure

Safe work permits are usually made out in either duplicate or triplicate. When a duplicate system is used, one copy of the permit is retained by the issuer at the work site and the other is held by the worker/department doing the work. The permit should always be

available at the work site. The permit is handed back to the issuer at the end of the shift or when the work is completed. In a triplicate permit system, the third copy is used by the safety department to audit the work to see if the requirements of the permit are being met. The triplicate permit system is the best method by considering safety of the organization. The format of work permits generally various based on the construction sites and based on the hazards in the work location.

6.6.  Multiple permits

Since most of the work permits contain same or similar contents, the construction sites tend to use one single permit form with different headings for various works by striking out the irrelevant headings. But, it has been experienced that the procedure had created confusion and misunderstandings and resulted in accidents. Therefore, it is desirable that different formats are used for different work permits rather than using one single format with different heading.

available at the work site. The permit is handed back to the issuer at the end of the shift or when the work is completed. In a triplicate permit system, the third copy is used by the safety department to audit the work to see if the requirements of the permit are being met. The triplicate permit system is the best method by considering safety of the organization. The format of work permits generally various based on the construction sites and based on the hazards in the work location.

6.7.  Multiple permits

Since most of the work permits contain same or similar contents, the construction sites tend to use one single permit form with different headings for various works by striking out the irrelevant headings. But, it has been experienced that the procedure had created confusion and misunderstandings and resulted in accidents. Therefore, it is desirable that different formats are used for different work permits rather than using one single format with different heading.

6.8.  Permit validity

In case when the work could not be completed within the same shift, the permit can be transferred on the name of another person who would be continuing the job. The fact, that the permit has been transferred to another person is noted on the permit. Generally, the validity of the permit is one shift only, the permit need to be renewed if required for beyond one shift.

The permit systems need to be continuously monitored by suitable methods, preferably by Electronic Monitoring method. If the concern authority noticed any violation on the permit system during any point of work, the permit needs to be suspended/cancelled immediately by DISH.

6.9.  Return of permit

On completion of the job, the person in-charge of the repair job at the time, ensures that, all men working on the equipment/apparatus have been withdrawn, all earth and other connections made by him or his men have been removed and he returns the permit the cancellation. The permit issuing authority, on receipt of the permit for cancellation, rechecks the equipment/apparatus and cancels the permit. He then energizes the equipment/apparatus made dead earlier for repair work, by removing the earth’s made for the purpose and closing all the switches, isolators, breakers, fuses, back feed switch etc. opened earlier and puts the equipment in service.

6.10.  Pitfalls Of Work Permit

The various factors leading to ineffective permit systems are: 

• • • •          The type or format of the permit does not cover all the potential hazards.

      •         The issuing procedure is inadequate.

      •          The person signing the permit has not inspected the operation to see if the isolation, lock-out or testing has been done.

      •          Workers are not following or don’t understand the requirements of the permit, especially the expiry time.

      •          The employer is not enforcing or auditing the work permit system.

      •         Permits are prepared too far in advance, or after the work have begun.

      •        A responsible person is not inspecting the operation after the permit has  been issued.

      •        The system is too complex.

A safe work permit is an effective tool to identify and control hazards, prevent injuries, and avoid costly mistakes. The permit system in a construction site plays an important role in minimizing accidents occurrences, in that it helps the people concerned to convert a known hazardous work situation into a safe work environment.

Chapter 7

TRAINING AND EDUCATION

7.1   Introduction

The construction industry has a high risk of occupational accidents and injuries and is regarded as one of the most unsafe industries worldwide. Plenty of studies highlight the lack of occupational safety training as one of the major factors behind the poor level of occupational safety in the construction industry. The importance of safety training for enhancing workers safety competency levels as well as skills.

The aim of this manual is to ensure the protection of workers and prevent work- related injuries, illnesses, and deaths by providing training, outreach, education and assistance. Many manuals, booklets, training aids and standards, which have prevented countless workplace tragedies, include explicit safety and health training requirements to ensure that workers have the required skills and knowledge to safely do their work. These requirements reflect and belief that training is an essential part of every employer’s safety and health program for protecting workers from injuries and illnesses. Researchers conclude that those who are new on the job have a higher rate of injuries and illnesses than more experienced workers.

Training is one of the most important components and it gives employees an opportunity to learn their jobs properly, bring new ideas into the workplace, reinforce existing ideas and practices, and it helps to put our Safety and Health Program into action.

7.2   Management commitment

     Every construction industry shall provide the necessary funds and scheduling time to ensure effective safety and health training is provided. The               commitment of management will include paid work time for training and training in the language that the worker understands. Both management and        employees will be involved in developing the program.

To most effectively carry out their safety responsibilities, all employees must understand:

1.      Their role in the program,

2.      The hazard sand potential hazards that need to be prevented or controlled.

3.      The ways to protect themselves and others.

4.      Company shall also achieve said goals by:

a)      Educating everyone on the natural and system consequences of their actions;

b)      Educating all managers, supervisors and employees on their safety management system responsibilities;

c)      Educating all employees about the specific hazards and control measures in their workplace;

d)      Training all employees on hazard identification, analysis, reporting and

                           control procedures;

                       e)      Training all employees on safe work procedures and practices.

The training program will focus on health and safety concerns that determine the best way to deal with a particular hazard. When a hazard is identified, first try to remove it entirely. If that is not feasible, train the workers to protect themselves, if necessary, against the remaining hazard. Company may decide in a such way that a safety or health problem can best be addressed by training (or by another method combined with training), and follow up by developing specific training goals based on those particular needs.

The training should be appropriate to the work and the duration shall be so decided that it gives the worker enough time to acquire necessary skill and knowledge, to enable him/her to perform his work safely, preferably not less 48 hours.

7.2.1.   Employees

At a minimum, employees must know the general safety and health rules of the worksite, specific site hazards and the safe work practices needed to help control exposure, and the individual's role in all types of emergency situations. Ensure all employees understand the hazards to which they may be exposed and how to prevent harm to themselves and others from exposure to hazards.

The construction company shall commit available resources to ensure employees receive safety and health training during the following circumstances below:

•   Whenever a person is hired --general safety orientation including an overview of company safety rules, and why those rules must be followed.

•  Whenever an –Employee is given a new job assignment --during formal classroom training, and again, when the supervisor provides specific task training. It’s extremely important that supervisors emphasize safety during initial task assignment.

•   Whenever new work procedures are begun --during formal classroom training and supervisor on-the-job training

•   Whenever new equipment is installed --if new hazards are introduced.

•  Whenever new substances are used --hazard communication program may apply.

•  The bottom line --train safety whenever a new hazard is introduced to the employee.

Employees must know they are responsible for complying with all company safety rules, and that most accidents will be prevented by their safe work practices. They must be very familiar with any personal protective equipment required for their jobs. They must know what to do in case of emergencies.

Each employee needs to understand that they are not expected to start working a new assignment until they have been properly trained. If a job appears to be unsafe, they will report the situation to their supervisor.

7.2.2.   Supervisors

Supervisors will be given special training to help them in their leadership role. They will be taught to look for hidden hazards in the work under their supervision; insist on the maintenance Of the physical protection in their areas and reinforce employee hazard training through performance feedback and consistent enforcement when necessary.

    The construction industry shall commit necessary resources to ensure supervisors understand the responsibilities below and the reasons for   them:

•    Detecting and correcting hazards in their work areas before they result in injuries or illnesses

•    Providing physical resources and psychosocial support that promote safe work

•   Providing performance feedback and effective recognition and discipline techniques

•   Conducting on-the-job training

Supervisors are considered the primary safety trainers. All supervisors will complete train-the-trainer classes to learn training techniques and how to test employee knowledge and skills. They will also receive training on how to apply fair and consistent recognition and discipline. Supervisor training may be provided by the supervisor's immediate manager, by the Safety Department, or by outside resources.

7.2.3.   Managers

All line managers must understand their responsibilities within respect to Safety and Health Program. This may require classroom training and other forms of communication. Formal classroom training may not be necessary. The subject can be covered periodically as a part of regular management meetings.

Managers shall be trained in the following subject areas:

• The elements of the safety management system, and the positive impact the various processes within the system can have on corporate objectives;

•  Their responsibility to communicate the safety and health program goals and objectives to their employees;

• Their role that includes making clear assignments of safety and health program responsibilities, providing authority and resources to carry out assigned tasks, and holding subordinate managers and supervisors accountable;

Training will emphasize the importance of managers' visibly showing their commitment to the safety and health program. They will be expected to set a good example by scrupulously following all the safety and health rules themselves.

 7.3   Effective Training

     Safety culture must support training. A culture of consequences is essential. To help make sure that efforts in safety and health are effective and have       developed methods to measure performance and administer consequences. Supervisors and managers must understand that their first responsibility       is to make sure they have met their obligations to their employees before considering disciplinary action.

 Top Managers/ Employers shall be educated on the elements (processes) within the safety accountability system. The safety committee shall be trained on, and continually evaluate, on safety accountability system. Training will focus on improving the Safety and Health Program whenever hazardous conditions and unsafe or inappropriate behaviors are detected.

Safety orientation shall emphasize that compliance with safety policies, procedures, and rules as outlined in the safety plan is a condition of employment. Discipline shall be administered to help the employee increase desired behaviors, not to in any way punish. An explanation of the natural and system consequences of behavior/performance shall be addressed in every safety training session.

       7.4   Types of Training

Required rules-related training shall be conducted according to appropriate government guidelines and shall also make sure additional training is conducted as deemed appropriate.

In general safety training will be conducted on the following levels:

• General Safety Education: General safety information is communicated to employees. No measurement of knowledge, skills, and                    abilities (SKA's) are required.

•   Specific Safety Training: Specific safety information and instruction on performing safe procedures and practices. SKAs are measured /tested. Employees’ must meet established criteria for SKA's to successfully complete the course.

  7.4.1.   New Employee Orientation.

The format and extent of orientation training will depend on the complexity of hazards and the work practices needed to control them.                     Orientation shall include a combination of initial classroom and follow-up on-the-job training.

•  For some jobs, orientation may consist of a quick review of site safety and health rules; hazard communication training for the toxic substances present at the site; training required by relevant standards, e.g., fire protection, lockout/ tagout, HIRA etc.; and, a run-through of the job tasks. This training shall be presented by the new employee's supervisor or delegated employee.

• For larger tasks with more complex hazards and work practices to control them, orientation shall be structured carefully. You shall make sure that our new employees start the job with a clear understanding of the hazards and how to protect themselves and others.

Company shall follow up supervisory training with a buddy system, where a worker with lengthy experience is assigned to watch over and coach               a new worker, either for a set period of time or until it is determined that training is complete.

          Whether the orientation is brief or lengthy, the supervisor will make sure that before new employees begin the job, they receive instruction in             responding to emergencies. All orientation training received will be properly documented. 

7.4.1.   Contract workers.

They shall receive training to recognize specific workplace hazards or potential hazards.

7.4.2.   Experienced workers.

They shall be trained if the installation of new equipment changes their job in any way, or if process changes create new hazards or increase previously existing hazards.

7.4.3.   All workers.

All workers shall receive refresher training as necessary to keep them prepared for emergencies and alert them to ongoing housekeeping problems.

7.4.4.   Personal Protective Equipment (PPE).

Workers needing to wear personal protective equipment (PPE) and persons working in high risk situations will need special training. Supervisors and workers alike must be taught the proper selection, use, and maintenance of PPE. Since PPE sometimes can be bulky, employees may need to be motivated to wear it in every situation where protection is necessary. Therefore, training will begin with a clear explanation of why the equipment is necessary, how its use will benefit the wearer, and what its limitations are. Remind your employees of your desire to protect them and of your efforts, not only to eliminate and reduce the hazards, but also to provide suitable PPE where needed.

Individual employees will become familiar with the PPE they are being asked to wear. This is done by handling it and putting it on. Training will consist of showing employees how to put the equipment on, how to wear it properly, and how to test for proper fit and how to maintain it. Proper fit is essential if the equipment is to provide the intended protection. We shall conduct periodic exercises in finding, donning, and properly using emergency personal protective equipment and devices.

7.4.5.   Vehicular Safety.

All workers operating a motor vehicle on the job (on or off premises) shall be trained in its safe vehicle operation, safe loading and unloading practices, safe speed in relation to varying conditions, and proper vehicle maintenance. You shall emphasize in the strongest possible terms the benefits of safe driving and the potentially fatal consequences of unsafe practices.

7.4.6.   Training on Emergency Action Plan.

Train employees to respond to emergency situations. Every employee at every  worksite shall understand:

•   Emergency telephone numbers and who may use them;

•    Emergency exits and how they are earmarked;

•   Evacuation routes;

•   Signals that alert employees to the need to evacuate.

Practice evacuation drills at least semi-annually, so that every employee has a chance to recognize the signal and evacuate in a safe and orderly fashion. Supervisors or their alternates will practice counting personnel at evacuation gathering points to ensure that every worker is accounted for. You shall include procedures to account for visitors, contract employees, and service workers such as cafeteria employees. At sites where weather or earthquake emergencies are reasonable possibilities, additional special instruction and drilling will be given.

7.4.7.   Periodic Safety and Health Training.

At some worksites, complex work practices are necessary to control hazards. Elsewhere, occupational injuries and illness are common. At such sites, you shall ensure that employees receive periodic safety and health training to refresh their memories and to teach new methods of control. New training will also be conducted as necessary when appropriate standards, rule, code change or new standards are issued.

Where the work situation changes rapidly, weekly meetings will be conducted as needed. These meetings will remind workers of the upcoming week's tasks, the environmental changes that may affect them, and the procedures they may need to protect themselves and others.

7.4.8.  Identifying types of training.

Specific hazards that employees need to know about should be identified through total site health and safety surveys, job hazard analysis, and change analysis. Accident and injury records may reveal additional hazards and needs for training. Near-miss reports, maintenance requests, and employee suggestions may uncover still other hazards requiring employee training.

7.5.   Monitoring the Training Program

Monitoring the employee's progress through the developmental period is critical to ensure success of the training program. Monitoring provides information to the supervisor regarding the benefits and effectiveness of the training received. In addition, it provides information on the ability of the employee to achieve training goals and objectives. Both the employee's supervisor and training staff play major roles in the monitoring process. To ensure adequate monitoring of the safety training program the actions below must occur.

•   The supervisor will ensure that each employee has completed the necessary prerequisites before the start of work.

•   The supervisor will review the employee's performance of task assignments.

•  The supervisor will conduct a review with the new-hire employee following each required training activity. This review provides the supervisor with information on the progress of the employee and can assist in identifying areas requiring further training.

•   When the supervisor determines that the new-hire employee has sufficient experience to successfully complete a task, the on job training review may be discontinued.

•  The supervisor and employee will complete training documentation.

7.6.   Safety and Health Training Program Evaluation

 An evaluation of the effectiveness of the training program will be conducted periodically. Staff from the training department will interview managers, supervisors and employees who have participated in the program to determine the effectiveness of the training, and to obtain suggestions for program improvement.

Evaluation will help determine whether the training provided has achieved its goal of improving employee safety and performance. When carefully developed and carried out, the evaluation will highlight training program strengths and identify areas of weakness that need change or improvement.

•   Evaluation will include analysis of employee attendance at training sessions. Training will not work for an employee who does not show up. Absenteeism can signal a problem with the worker, but it can also indicate a weakness in training content and presentation.

•   Compare pre-and post-training injury and accident rates overall. The periods of time being compared must be long enough to allow significant differences to emerge if training has made a difference.

•   Determine whether the training provided has achieved its goal of improving employee safety performance. Evaluation will highlight training program strengths and identify areas of weakness that need change or improvement.

The safety team/coordinator will evaluate training through the following methods:

•    Observing employee skills;

•   Surveys and interviews to determine employee knowledge and attitudes about training;

•   Reviewing the training plan and lesson plans;

•   Comparing training conducted with hazards in the workplace;

•    Reviewing training documents;

•   Comparing pre-and post-training injury and accident rates.

If evaluation determines program improvement is necessary, the safety committee/ coordinator will develop recommendations.

Important to note here is it's often easier to conduct an activity than to judge it. But do not ignore this evaluation phase. It will allow you to calculate your training program's bottom-line profitability. Have the goals of training been achieved? Do the results warrant offering the training again at some later date? How can the program be improved? Once you have made the effort to provide employee safety and health training, you certainly want to be able to answer these questions.

    7.7.   Topics to be covered to construction workers training:

Some of the topics may include:

•     Construction Site Management.

•     Hazard identification & Risk Assessment.

•    Work Permit System-Working at Height- Scaffolding, Fall Protection, Confined Space.

•    Safety in High Rise Construction.

•     Demolition.

•      Hand and Portable Power Tools

•       Material Handling - Manual and Mechanical

•     Electrical Safety

•     Accident Investigation & Reporting.

•      Personal Protective Equipment.

•      Occupational Health, First-Aid and occupational Diseases.

•      Fire Prevention and Control.

Chapter 8

MECHANICAL AND MANUAL MATERIAL HANDLING

8.1.   Introduction

Material handling is the job done by every worker from unloading raw materials, transferring and using at the site.

Mechanized material handling equipment has come into the industry to eliminate the human handling or to assist the person to handle move, varied and heavy objects. Mechanical handling of materials reduces manufacturing cost and increases the productivity. At the same time mechanical handling has, a new set of hazards and injuries.

The accidents in material handling are almost due to human failure or unsafe acts rather than mechanical failures or unsafe conditions.

Types of material handling methods are as follows:

i)   Manual handling

ii)   Mechanical material handling

Hazards of material handling:-

The accidents and injuries that are common in unsafe material handling work are:

a.   Dropping or slipping of objects on the foot.

b.   Body organs Pressed in between objects and lifting tackles.

c.   Cuts due to sharp edges.

d.   Burns due to hot or corrosive substance.

e.   Sprains while lifting materials by wrong method.

f.   Scalp injuries while working in confined spaces.

   8.2   Manual Handling:

Manual handling means using physical strength to move materials. This method increases the possibilities of injuries and ads to the cost of               product.

To reduce the number of material handling injuries and increase the efficiency, material handling to be minimized by combining and eliminating                   operations or mechanization.

Even after all elimination and mechanization there will be still objects to be lifted manually for which the following factors are to be taken into consideration for safe acts in materials handling.

Factors to be considered before attempting to lift a load

1.   Material to be handled, terrain or the surface.

2.   The distance to be moved.

3.   The direction of the load to be taken.

4.   Volume and weight, shape and size.

5.   Frequency.

6.   Mode of handling

     Training and constant supervision will reduce the unsafe acts:

1.      Inspect materials for sleeves, jagged edges burns, rough or slippery surfaces.

2.      Get a firm grip on the object.

      3.      Keep fingers away from material resting points, especially when setting down on the rollers.

      4.      When handling timber, pipe or other long objects keep hands away from the ends to prevent them from being pinched.

5.      Wipe of greasy, wet, slippery or dirty objects before trying to handle them.

      6.      Most strains and back injuries occur while lifting and setting down objects by hands.

   8.3   PROPER METHOD OF MANUAL HANDLING:

a.   Consider the size, weight and shape of the object to be carried. Do not lift more than the object that can be handled comfortably. If necessary get help from others.

b.   Set feet firmly. One foot can be slightly ahead of the other for increased effectiveness. Feet should be enough apart to give good balance and stability (approximately the width of the shoulder).

c.   Get close to the load as possible. Bend legs about 90 degrees at the knees.

a.   Keep the back as straight as possible. Bend at the hips, not the middle of the back.

b.    Grip the object firmly. Maintain the grip while lifting or carrying. Before changing or adjusting the grip, keep the object down again.

c.     Straighten the legs to lift the object, and at the same time bring the back to a vertical position. Look upward when beginning to lift.

d.     Never carry a load you cannot see over or around. Make sure the path of travel is clear. Carry the object close to the body.

e.     Never turn at the waist, to change the direction or to put an object down. Turn the whole body and crouch down to lower the object.

 8.4    Principles of lifting: -

    The basic principles of lifting technique as follows:

•  Size up the load and make sure that the path is clear.

•  Do not attempt to lift the load alone if it is too heavy or awkward, get help.

•   Keep the load close to the body.

•    Use your thigh and leg muscles, not the back, as the load is to be lifted in one smooth movement.

•   Have feet shoulder width apart, with the load between them.

8.5   Ergonomics in manual handling: -

Manual material handling tasks may expose workers to physical risk factors if these tasks are performed repeatedly or over a long period of time, it can lead to fatigue and injury. The main risk factors, or conditions associated with the development of injuries in manual handling tasks include: -

i)  Awkward posture (e.g. bending, twisting)

ii)   Repetitive motions (e.g. bending, twisting)

iii)   Forceful exertions (e.g. carrying or lifting heavy loads)

iv)   Pressure points (e.g. grasping (contact form) loads, leaning against parts or

v)   Surfaces that are hard or have sharp edges)

VI) Static posture (e.g. maintaining fixed position for a long time)

8.6   Team Lifting and Carrying

a.   When two or more men are involved to carry a single object, they should adjust the load so that it rides in level and so that each person carries an equal part of the load. Trial lifts can be made before proceeding.

b.   When two men carry long sections of pipe or any lengthy material, they should not carry on the same shoulder and walk in unison. Shoulder pads will prevent cutting of shoulders and help to reduce fatigue.

c.   When a gang of men carries a heavy object like a rail, the foreman or the leader should direct the work and special tools such as tongs should be used.

d.   Normally the gang leader has different signals, like blowing whistle or hand clapping for different operations of which the men are familiar.

e.   New employees and men who move slowly need special attention.

8.7   Handling materials of Specific Shapes

Sheet metal:

 Sharp edges of sheet metal is to considered and leather hand gloves and safety boot to be wear.

 Barrel and Drum:

Barrel lifting handle or manila rope to roll up or down on a ramp to be used.

Glass panes:

Hand gloves and long leather sleeves, apron, leg guard and safety boot to be worn.

Long objects:

Long pieces of pipes, bars, timber should be carried over the shoulders with the front end raised to prevent striking other employees. Shoulder pads to protect abrasion on the shoulder to be used.

Scrap metals:

The irregularly shaped jagged, mingled objects and strips or pieces may fly when piece is removed from a pile. Workmen should wear goggles, leather gloves, safety boot, leg guard and apron.

Gas cylinders:

Compressed gas cylinders should be handled carefully. Do not drag the cylinders on floors.

Boxes, cartons & sacks:

The best way to handle boxes and cartons is to grasp the alternate top and bottom corners.

     While handling materials manually the safety equipment’s should be appropriate to the type of material. Where toxic or irritating solids are                   handled, workmen should take daily showers to remove the materials from the persons.

Chapter 9

  ELECTRICAL SAFETY

9.1   Introduction

Construction sites are considered as one of the most dangerous places for workers. Life risks, potential hazards are numerous. According to Cindy Lovell, “the construction industry accident fatality rate stands at more than double that of the all-sector average.” She added that “construction sites are a health and safety nightmare”. Many factors make construction work challenging for workers and engineers such as weather and safety concerns.

Electrical hazards are a major cause of death and serious injury on construction sites. It serves as a practical guidance to construction filed workers, employers, designers, manufacturers, importers, suppliers (including hirers), electrical contractors and electricians on eliminating or reducing the risk of electrocution and electric shock to any person.

High power is necessary for all the electrical equipment used on a construction site, like heavy-duty machinery and the complex network of electrical installations. This can either be interlinked or standalone. Here is a list of common electrical activities involved at construction sites:

i)        Temporary power supply

ii)      Fixed wiring

iii)    Electrical switchboards

iv)     Circuit breakers

v)    Overhead solutions

vi)    Generators

vii)   Underground solutions

viii)  High voltage solutions

   i) Temporary power supply:

A construction site has high power requirements and it is wrong to assume that you will access power instantly and setting it up will be easy. It might be that it is located in a rural location or there are several geographical challenges. We need to set-up power supply temporarily but with help of expertise of a trained electrician to power up construction site as and when required basis.

Installation of the temporary wiring is done from the main source to the rest of the construction site where it is necessary. A construction site is already full of dangers at every corner, this electrical wiring should not add to it.

     ii)   Fixed wiring:

Fixed wiring is essential for all the electrical activities necessary on the site. This includes ensuring all the vital spots of a construction site have electrical power to use the heavy-duty equipment. This means installing power cables, sockets, distribution boards, etc.

It is vital to isolate the permanent wiring in the case of demolition work since it can be live. On the other hand, take necessary steps to ensure it is not active prior to approaching the space. It is also necessary to avoid damaging the permanent wiring during the construction work by isolating it properly and protecting it from common threats.

           iii)    Electrical switchboards:

A switchboard is an essential hub that is necessary to direct the electricity stream for the needs at the site. This will act as a source of power for the entire site with well-defined sections like the main power unit and that necessary for the distribution.

            iv)  Circuit breakers:

Circuit breakers provide protection against circuit overload and fire. Every final sub-circuit must be protected by a circuit breaker except final sub-circuits exceeding 50A, which may be protected with high rupturing capacity (HRC) fuses.

A construction site also requires basic safety measures to be implemented. An electric shock is one of the most common threats. This can be avoided by installing a circuit breaker in place. This type of system is designed to minimize the risk and protect those working with electrical devices.

          v)   Overhead solutions:

Installing an overhead distribution is one of the most cost-effective solutions and is also preferred by professionals to provide temporary power to the working site. The right way to install it is to ensure it does not cross vital roads or access paths; especially those used by heavy machinery. In the case where it is essential for the wire to cross the road, it is a good idea to raise it high enough for the large vehicles to pass without any issue.

               Generators:

Generators are a common sight in this type of zone. Its portable nature ensures you can power your electrical devices in the remotest places. However, setting it up is something that should be best left to the professionals.

         vi)  Underground solutions:

It is highly likely that there will be a requirement for power underground as well. You can trust industrial electricians to meet your power requirement by connecting a power source underground.

          vii)  High voltage solutions:

They have innovative methods of meeting your high demand for power and do so by ensuring you have the least downtime. They will be able to supply you with high voltage power irrespective of the distance and power requirements.

 9.2.   Hazards in electrical activities at construction site

In construction site, working with electricity or activities involved are also one the major reason of any incident or Fatal.

Major Hazards involve in electricity activities are:

a.   Electrical Shock

b.   Electric burn

c.   Electrocution

d.   Arc flash/arc blast.

e.   Fire

f.   Explosions

In other means, the following is a list of common causes for electrical hazards at construction sites:

⚫         Improper grounding

⚫         Exposed electrical parts

⚫         Inadequate wiring

⚫         Overhead power lines

⚫         Damaged insulation

⚫         Overloaded circuits

⚫         Wet conditions

⚫         Damaged tools and equipment

•   Electrical Shock:

Whenever you work with power tools or on electrical circuits there is a risk of electrical hazards, especially electrical shock. Anyone can be exposed to these hazards at home or at work. Workers are exposed to more hazards because job sites can be cluttered with tools and materials, fast-paced, and open to the weather. Risk is also higher at work because many jobs involve electric power tools. If you are in contact with a live wire or any live component of an energized electrical device and also in contact with any grounded object you will receive a shock. Plumbing is often grounded. Metal electrical boxes and conduit are grounded. Static electricity hazards, including lightning can be a source of ignition, and injuries. It can result in shock to personnel and damage to equipment directly. It may also lead to fires. Some operations (e.g. handling or transporting liquids, solids, or gases in portable containers or piping systems) generate static electricity hazards.

The danger from electrical shock depends on:

i)      The amount of the shocking current through the body,

ii)    The duration of the shocking current through the body, and

iii)    The path of the shocking current through the body.

iv)    Whether skin is wet or dry

Effects of Electrical Current on the Body:

AC current (mA)

Effect on human body

1

Slight tingling sensation

2-9

Small shock

10-24

Muscles contract causing you to freeze

25-74

Respiratory muscles can become paralyzed; pain; exit burns often visible

75-300

Usually fatal; ventricular fibrillation; entry & exit wounds visible

>300

Death almost certain; if survive will have badly burnt organs and probably require amputations

Note: Effects are for voltages less than about 600 volts. Higher voltages also cause severe burns

•  Electric Burn:

The most common shock-related, nonfatal injury is a burn. Burns caused by electricity may be of three types:

•   Electrical burns,

•   Arc burns, and

• Thermal contact burns.

Electrical burns can result when a person touches electrical wiring or equipment that is used or maintained improperly. Typically, such burns occur on the hands. Electrical burns are one of the most serious injuries you can receive. They need to be given immediate attention. Additionally, clothing may catch fire and a thermal burn may result from the heat of the fire.

•  Electrocution:

At construction sites, workers are exposed to live wires or electricity while they are doing repair work on homes or buildings. A wide variety of jobs require workers to handle devices that have active electricity running through them. There are typically three main types of electrical accidents that occur on a construction site:

• Contact with overhead power lines

• Contact with transformers and live wires

• Contact with electrical currents while working with tools, machinery and appliances

•    Arc flash/arc blast:

Arcing faults in electrical equipment are multi-energy events (i.e., involving heat, blast, light, and sound) that generally produce high levels of energy release in a short-duration. It takes place due to phase to phase and phase to earth fault conditions. It may cause heavy flashover which may result in severe injury to employees in the close vicinity.

Arc blast occurs due to high-voltage arcs can also produce considerable pressure waves by rapidly heating the air and creating a blast. A high-voltage arc can also cause many of the copper and aluminum components in electrical equipment to melt. These droplets of molten metal can be blasted great distances by the pressure wave. Although these droplets harden rapidly, they can still be hot enough to cause serious burns or cause ordinary clothing to catch fire, even if you are 10 feet or more away.

•    Fire:

Electricity is one of the most common causes of fires and thermal burns in homes and workplaces. Defective or misused electrical equipment is a major cause of electrical fires. If there is a small electrical fire, be sure to use only a Class C or multipurpose (ABC) fire extinguisher, or you might make the problem worse. All fire extinguishers are marked with letter(s) that tell you the kinds of fires they can put out. Some extinguishers contain symbols, too.

Most result from problems with fixed wiring. Problems with cords, plugs, receptacles, and switches also cause electrical fires. The flow of electrical current generates heat; the higher the current, the greater the heat. Without a fuse, the equipment might be damaged and the wiring would eventually become hot enough to melt its insulation and start a fire.

Static electricity hazards, including lightning can be a source of ignition, and injuries. It can result in shock to personnel and damage to equipment directly. It may also lead to fires.

• Explosions:

A high-voltage arc can produce a considerable pressure wave blast. In addition, such an explosion can cause serious ear damage and memory loss due to concussion.

Thermal burns may result if an explosion occurs when electricity ignites an explosive mixture of material in the air. This ignition can result from the build-up of combustible vapours, gasses, or dusts. The risk of explosion hazards associated with electrical equipment .e.g. Hydrogen filled generators, Pressurized gas cylinders, Stored energy hazards including capacitor bank explosion potential etc.,.

9.3.   Safety precaution at construction site:

During working on electrical equipment/ installation, the following safety measures shall be followed as applicable in National Rules & Code.

(1)   Before commencement of any building or other construction work, the employer shall take adequate measures to prevent any worker from coming into physical contact with any electrical equipment or apparatus, machines or live electrical circuit which may cause electrical hazard during the course of his employment at a building or other construction work.

(2)   The employer shall display and maintain suitable warning signs at conspicuous places at a building or other construction work in Hindi and in a local language understood by the majority of the building workers.

(3)   In workplaces at a building or other construction work where the exact location of underground electric power line is not known, the building workers using jack hammers, crow bars or other hand-tools which may come in contact with a live electrical line, shall be provided by the employer with insulated protective gloves and footwear of the type in accordance with the national standards.

(4)   The employer shall ensure that, as far as practicable, no wiring, which may come in contact with water or which may be mechanically damaged, is left on ground or floor at a building or other construction work.

(5)   The employer shall ensure that all electrical appliances and current carrying equipment used at a building or other construction work are made of sound material and are properly and adequately earthed.

(6)   The employer shall ensure that all temporary electrical installations at a building or other construction work are provided with earth-leakage circuit breakers.

(7)   The employer shall ensure that all electrical installations at a building or other construction work comply with the requirements of any law for the time being in force.

Apart from the above guidelines, following practices shall be adopted to achieve the minimum level of health and safety.

• • • •  The construction field workers/employee, employers, designers, manufacturers, importers, suppliers (including hirers), electrical contractors and electricians shall follow the National laws, standards and codes as applicable:

      •   The training shall be provided to employees exposed to an electrical hazard when the risk associated with that hazard is not reduced to a safe level by the applicable electrical installation requirements. Such employees shall be trained to understand the specific hazards associated with electrical energy.

      •   Employees/contractors working on/near electrical equipment shall be trained in emergency response/first aid.

      •   Prior to carrying out any activity related to operation, maintenance or testing of electrical equipment, it shall be ensured that there is an appropriate Job Safety Analysis (JSA) supported with Hazard Identification and Risk assessment (HIRA) done and recorded.

      •   Fire and explosion hazards associated with electrical equipment shall be assessed and managed

      •   The employer shall display and maintain suitable warning signs at conspicuous places at a building or other construction work in English/Hindi and in a local language understood by the majority of the building workers

      •   Permit to Work (PTW) and Lock Out Tag Out (LOTO) Procedures to be followed

      •   All electrical work shall be done in compliance to Standard Operating Procedure (SOP)/ Standard Maintenance Procedure (SMP).

      •   “MEN ON LINE” “DO NOT SWITCH ON” “DANGER” or “CAUTION” board as applicable shall be used during maintenance works on the electrical equipment

      •   Checklist should be made available and filled up copies recorded.

      •   In construction work where the exact location of underground electric power line is not known, the workers shall be provided by the employer with insulated protective gloves and footwear of the type in accordance with the national standards.

      •   The employer shall ensure that, as far as practicable, no wiring, which may come in contact with water or which may be mechanically damaged, is left on ground or floor at a building or other construction work.

      •   All cables and wires shall be adequately protected mechanically against damages. In case the cable is required to be laid underground, it shall be adequately protected by covering the same with bricks. Plain cement Concrete (PCC) tile or any other approved means.

      •   Isolation and subsequent confirmation test shall be carried out to verify absence of voltage.

      •   All cable glands, armoring and sheathing of electric cables, metal circuits and their fittings, metallic fittings and other non-current carrying parts of electrical equipment and apparatus shall be effectively grounded

      •   Authorized Work Area cordoning off by barricading tape/Hard barricades shall be done prior to maintenance/testing

      •   Proper illumination shall be provided if the work has to be continued during dark hours.

      •   Hazard/flashing lights shall be installed if the work involves HV testing at 1 kV and above.

      •   The room in which work is being carried out should have adequate ventilation system and emergency exit points. Adequate communication systems should be made available

      •  Appropriate PPE and adequate safety apparel like arc suits shall be worn.

      •   Certified and insulated tools shall be used while performing electrical work.

      •   After completion of work the Removed material shall be stored / shipped to safe location.

      •   After completion of work Permit issuer shall physically check and ensure that the following are cleared before closing of PTW:

        • • • • • a.   Grounds

                • b.   Tools

                • c.   Spares

                • d.   Personnel

                • e.   Debris

                • f.   Scrap

      •  All Electrical equipment spares and tools should be inspected and maintained at regular intervals as per approved schedule.

Working on or near electrically energized equipment

The safety measures for working on or near Electrically energized equipment are as follows:

•   Work on or near any live conductor should be carried out only in case of exceptions, after a thorough HIRA has been carried out.

•   When working on or near energized electrical equipment it shall be ensured that no other work should be performed within the prohibited approach boundary.

•   Assumes that every electric line is energized though it is new line or deadline. And always opened jumper of energized line.

•   To avoid electrocution or electric shock, one must isolate the line by removing jumper, LOTO system, provide earthing, provide insulation, double earthing for equipment.

•   Testing which calls for Voltage injection is allowed within the prohibited approach boundary provided proper test equipment’s and PPE are used and the personnel are competent and qualified.

•   Permission to work on such locations requires authorization from a senior authorized person/Engineer in-charge regardless of the PPE used or design of equipment.

•   Recommended PPE: Helmet, voltage rated hand gloves, safety shoes, safety goggle with face shield, FR (Flame Resistant) coat, gas mask, acid resistant aprons.

Testing for absence of voltage

The safety measures for testing for absence of voltage are as follows:

•  All circuits are considered energized until verified dead by testing it with appropriate instruments such as non-range selectable voltage indicators (Common DC/AC range voltmeter while verifying whether LV circuits are de-energized)

•   All Cable Compartments of switchgears shall have back charge indicators. These back charge indicators shall be checked for no voltage before accessing the cable compartment. The healthiness of these back charge indicators must be monitored as per Standard Operating Procedure (SOP)/ Standard Maintenance Procedure (SMP).

•   Ensure metallic segregation of Bus side (source) and Cable side (load) Compartment before entering any compartment for maintenance testing inspection. Metallic segregation shall be ensured between cable side (load) compartments.

•   Ensure that all test instruments or equipment used are designed and certified to meet the requirements and are rated in all aspects for the category of the task to be performed.

•    Practice of “Test Before Touch” (TBT) and performance of positive confirmatory test of the instrument before every use should be followed. Insulation healthiness level of test instrument should be confirmed before using them as it is likely to be in contact with a live 220 kV line. Insulation should be physically checked for cleanliness, dryness and free of cracks/breakages. Always store such instruments in protected cases.

•   Recommended PPE: Helmet, Shoes, voltage rated hand gloves, safety shoes, safety goggles with face shield and Flame-Resistant coat.

Dismantling of electrical raceways and cables

The safety measures for dismantling of raceways and cables are as follows

•   The identification, cutting, and removal of electrical raceways and cables often involve a high level of risk in determining that cables are not damaged while removed cable trays and that in case of cable removal the correct cable is removed.

•   The cable left behind after removal of cable tray must be adequately supported and protected from damage by adjacent equipment, moving parts, UV rays, hot pipe lines, etc.

•  Maintain proper labelling and identification of cables at both ends to avoid the error of mistaken identity (Refer Lockout Tag out Procedure).

•  Test for the absence of voltage at the source and destination ends of each cable. Follow live cable identification procedures and positively identify each cable before it is cut.

•   Ensure all protection and isolation system are working.

•   A good practice would be to positively identify other cables in the vicinity

Relocation of equipment

The safety measures for relocation of equipment’s are as follows

•  Before relocation of equipment / electrical systems from one place to another a formal risk assessment should be carried out.

•   When equipment / electrical system are relocated to a new place it shall be ensured that it will work in a safe manner.

•   Alternate power supply should be made available during relocation work wherever applicable/possible. This will improve availability and reduce pressure of time constraint while carrying out replacement job.

Excavations and drilling in walls

The electrical safety measures excavation and drilling in walls are as follows

• • • • Ensure that the electrical lines, conduits, and cables in the area of work activity are identified before performing excavation and drilling of floors, roofs, walls.

      •   Up-to-date maps / drawings/electronic tracers systems may be used for locating underground / concealed cables

      •  GIS system may be referred to wherever it is available.

      •   Prior to excavation and penetration, it shall be ensured that there is an appropriate Job Safety Analysis (JSA), Permit to Work (PTW) and Lock out Tag out (LOTO) compliance supported with Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment (HIRA).

9.4.   Management of electrical hazards

The management of electrical hazards are as follows

a)      Shock Hazard :

The following technologies should be adopted  to complement the overall shock protection program and to minimize the risk of shock:

•   Voltage-rated gloves shall be worn wherever a shock hazard is present.

•   Proper design, installation, and maintenance of equipment earthing which is critical to managing shock hazards shall be ensured.

•   Installation of RCCB (Residual Current Circuit Breakers)/ELCBs (Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker) shall be carried out based on the company’s standards / procedures. Periodic test of RCCB/ELCB should be carried out.

•  Battery-powered tools instead of AC power driven tools to be used wherever possible.

•  Double-insulated equipment

•   Shrouding and barriers

•  Insulated or voltage-rated tools

•   Voltage-rated PPE (e.g., gloves or helmets)

•   Insulated mats for floors

•  Insulated, flexible barriers for exposed equipment parts

•   Identification of multiple voltage sources inside cabinets

•   Segregated voltages to prevent accidental contact where multiple voltage sources exist in one unit, terminal blocks, and marshalling boxes

•   Finger-safe terminals to prevent finger contact

•   Prohibited approach boundary limit for circuit parts and conductors shall be crossed only by a qualified and competent person under the written authorization from management.

b)     Arc / Flashover Hazards:

Arcing faults in electrical equipment are multi-energy events (i.e., involving heat, blast, light, and sound) that generally produce high levels of energy release in a short-duration

•   It takes place due to phase to phase and phase to earth fault conditions. It may cause heavy flashover which may result in severe injury to employees in the close vicinity.

•   Company power shall clearly specify the level of Incident Energy above which the recommended PPE’s (such as cool coat, face shield with goggles, safety shoes, hand gloves and insulated electrical hand tools) are to be used.

•   Areas where dangers of Arc/Flashover hazards can occur should be identified.

•   There should be warning boards wherever use of arc suit is mandatory.

•  This phenomenon can occur at low voltage levels as well. Areas where dangers of Arc/flashover hazards can occur should be identified. There should be warning boards wherever use of arc suit is mandatory.

c)      Static Electricity Hazards

The following techniques should be adopted to manage the static electricity hazards:

•   Static electricity hazards, including lightning can be a source of ignition, and injuries. It can result in shock to personnel and damage to equipment directly. It may also lead to fires.

•  Some operations (e.g. handling or transporting liquids, solids, or gases in portable containers or piping systems) generate static electricity hazards.

• Certain maintenance activities (e.g. steam cleaning, industrial vacuuming, and sandblasting), generate static electricity hazards.

•  Ensure proper earthing and bonding of earthing conductors to equipment and structures to prevent generation of static electricity.

•  Each site shall be equipped with adequate lightning arrestors.

d)     Fire and explosion hazards:

Assess and manage the risk of explosion hazards associated with electrical equipment .e.g. Hydrogen filled generators. These should include, but are not limited to:-

•   Provision and maintenance of drawings and documents describing the limits of the hazardous area and its classification.

•   Selection and procurement of electrical and non-electrical equipment appropriate for the area classification.

•  Maintenance of the mechanical integrity of the installation, including grounding and bonding.

•   Promptly arresting the leakage of combustible gases and liquid and avoid accumulation of combustible waste.

•  No hot work to be carried out without “HOT WORK PERMIT”

•   In the absence of Work Permit System in that particular site, a system should be put in place to ensure that hot work is conducted in a safe and secure manner.

e)      Temporary wiring:

The following techniques should be adopted to manage the temporary wiring hazards

• • • • •   Temporary wiring shall be done with all safety systems, ELCBs, warning signs, in place and in working condition.

        •  Knowledge of source isolation points shall be known to the working personnel.

        •   Wiring for temporary supply shall be done with proper plug and socket arrangement.

        •   Proper earthing should be applied to all equipment and tools used.

        •   Temporary wiring will be allowed only in the following cases:

a)      Construction, remodeling, demolition of buildings and / or structures.

Maintenance, repair of equipment

b)      Emergencies, testing activities, experiments and developmental work

                                           c)  Temporary wiring shall be removed immediately upon completion of construction, or the purpose for which it was installed

• • • • •   Special precautions should be taken in case of temporary wiring installation.

        •   All armored cables shall be properly terminated by using suitable cable glands.

        •   Multi stranded conductor cables shall be connected by using cable lugs/sockets. Cable lugs shall preferably be crimped. They shall be of proper size and shall correspond to the current rating and size of the cable. Twisted connections will not be allowed.

f)   Earthing

The control techniques of earthing are:

• • • • • All extraneous metal parts of an electrical installation and adjacent metal work shall be connected to earth.

        • The design of the earth system shall take into account the protection of life from raised voltages on external parts and the correct operation of the electrical protection systems.

        •   Dual earthing should be provided.

        •  Appropriate means shall be used to test the integrity of earthing systems periodically.

        •   The design of the system should consider the requirement to test wherever possible.

        •   Proper symbols and colour codes should be used for earthing system.

        •   Earthing System should be theft proof. In case of theft it should be replaced immediately. 

g)     Overhead lines

To control the risks and dangers of overhead lines are:

•   Work in areas where overhead lines are present should be monitored carefully. A formal risk assessment / Job Safety Analysis shall be carried out and adequate precautions taken before such work is permitted.

•   Adequate precautions should be taken while using long length equipment and tackles in these areas.

•   Reduction in clearances should be considered while working in vicinity of HV lines.

•   Personnel working in these areas should be aware of Induction Voltages present.

•   Personnel should be alert to fault occurring on adjacent lines. Working at height Procedure shall be followed.

h)   Maintenance requirements for portable electric tools and equipment:

Attachment plugs, receptacles, cover plates, and cord connectors shall be maintained such that the following criteria are met:

•   There are no breaks, damage, or cracks exposing energized conductors and circuit parts.

•  There are no missing cover plates.

•  Terminations have no stray strands or loose terminals.

•  There are no missing, loose, altered, or damaged blades, pins, or contacts.

Chapter 10

WORK AT HEIGHT

10.1  Introduction

Falls from height are one of the biggest causes of workplace fatalities and major injuries. Common causes are falls from ladders and through fragile roofs. Work at height means work in any place where, if there were no precautions in place, a person could fall a distance liable to cause personal injury.

Before working at height you must work through these simple steps:

·         Avoid work at height where it is reasonably practicable to do so;

·         Where work at height cannot be avoided, prevent falls using either an existing place of work that is already safe or the right type of equipment;

·         Minimize the distance and consequences of a fall, by using the right type of equipment where the risk cannot be eliminated.

Employers and those in control of any work at height activity must make sure that the work is properly planned, supervised and carried out by competent people. This includes using the right type of equipment for working at height.

Fall Protection

Generally, fall protection can be provided through the use of guardrail systems, safety net systems, or personal fall arrest systems.

10.1  Guardrail Systems

Guardrail systems are barriers erected to prevent workers from falling to lower levels. Top rails, or equivalent guardrail system members, must be enough in accordance with the national standards. When mid-rails are used, they must be installed at a height midway between the top edge of the guardrail system and the walking or working level. Guardrail systems must be capable of withstanding a force in accordance with the national standards.

10.1  Personal Fall Arrest Systems

A personal fall arrest system is a system used to safely stop (arrest) a worker who is falling from a working level. It consists of an anchorage, connectors, and a body harness. It also may include a lanyard, deceleration device, lifeline, or suitable combinations of these.

10.2  Personal Fall Arrest System Components

Snap-hooks – Snap-hooks must be the locking type and designed and used to prevent disengagement from any component part of the personal fall arrest system.

Horizontal Lifelines- Horizontal lifelines must be designed, installed, and used under the supervision of a qualified person, as part of a complete personal fall arrest system that maintains a safety factor of at least two.

Fig.10.3. Anchoring of full body harness

Anchorages- Anchorages used to attach personal fall arrest systems must be designed, installed, and used under the supervision of a qualified person, as part of a complete personal fall arrest system which maintains a safety factor of at least two. Alternatively, the anchorages must be independent of any anchorage being used to support or suspend platforms and must be capable of supporting sufficient strength conforming the national standards or be capable of supporting at least twice the expected impact load.

10.1  Safety Net Systems    - When safety nets are used, they must be installed as close as practicable under the walking or working surface on which workers are working and never more than 30 feet below that level. Drop-testing is required to ensure that safety nets and safety net installations are working properly. Do not use defective nets. Inspect nets at least

once a week for wear, damage, or deterioration of components such as net connection points. To work properly, a safety net must have safe openings. Mesh openings must not exceed 36 square inches, and must not be longer than 6 inches on any side. Each opening, measured center-to-center of mesh ropes or webbing must not exceed 6 inches.

FALL PREVENTION

10.2  Fall Restraint Systems

Generally fall restraint system is recognized as a means of prevention. This system is comprised of a body belt or body harness, an anchorage, connectors, and other necessary equipment. Other components typically include a lanyard, a lifeline, and other devices. For a restraint system to work, the anchorage must be strong enough to prevent the worker from moving past the point where the system is fully extended, including an appropriate safety factor.

10.1  Scaffolding

Scaffolding shall be erected, dismantled, moved, and modified only under the direction of a qualified person and by employees who have received appropriate and specific training for the work they are to perform. Determination and designation of competent persons for scaffold work are the responsibility of the site except where local regulations set other criteria. The employer shall ensure at a construction site of a building or other construction work that no scaffold is erected, added, altered or dismantled except under the supervision of a responsible person for such erection, addition, alteration or dismantling. The scaffolds so constructed shall conform with the requirements of National Standards and Codes as applicable.

Categories and Classification:

·         Tube and coupler scaffold

·         Suspended scaffold

·         Mobile scaffold

Specifications of Scaffolds as applicable to the Indian Standards - IS 3696-1, 1987: Safety requirements for the erection, use and dismantling of scaffolds and IS 3696-2, 1991: Scaffolds and Ladders - Code of Safety, Part 2: Ladders

All elevated structures/ working platform areas shall be guarded on all sides. Railings and toe boards shall be provided on the platform.

·         Scaffolds shall be designed to support at least 4 times the anticipated weight of Men and material

·         Make certain that all scaffolds are in plumb and level at all times.

·         Scaffolds shall be secured from tipping when the scaffold height exceeds four times its minimum base dimension.

·         Landing platform should be provided at every 9 meters of height.

·         The employer shall ensure at a construction site of a building or other construction work that—

(a)   Every scaffold and every component thereof is of adequate construction, made of sound material and free from defects and is safe for the purposes for which it is intended for use;

(b) In case bamboo is used for scaffolding, such bamboo is of suitable quality, good condition, free from protruding knots and stripped off to avoid any injury to building workers during handling such bamboo;

(c)   All metal scaffolds used in building or other construction work conform to be relevant national standards.

Specifications of Scaffolds applicable to Tube-and-Coupler Scaffold:

·         Minimum height of first horizontal member (Ledger) of scaffolds from the Ground/Kicker lift member shall be 2.2 meters. When scaffold is more than 6 meter height or carrying heavy load, kicker lift should be provided.

·         The mid rail and Top rail shall be at height 600 mm and 1200 mm respectively and toe boards (150mm) shall be securely attached to the platform.

·         Wall scaffoldings shall be secured between structure and scaffolding, at least every 10 meters of length and 8 meters of height.

·         Minimum overlap of vertical members (standards) and/ or horizontal members (Ledgers) shall be 600 mm with at least two couplers.

·         Base plate 100 x 100 x 3 mm shall be used to support all vertical pipes of Scaffolds.

·         Sole plate of 300 x 300 x 6 mm shall be used at all unpaved area to support base plate.

10.1  Mobile Scaffolds

·         Attach castors with plain stems to the panel or adjustment screw by pins or other suitable means. Mid rail and Top rail shall be at height 600mm and 1200 mm respectively.

·         Apply castor brakes at all times when a scaffold is not being moved.

·         Remove all material and equipment from platform before moving scaffolding.

·         Do not try to move rolling scaffolding without sufficient help. Watch out for holes in the floor and for overhead obstructions.

·         Do not use brackets on rolling scaffoldings without first considering the overturning effect.

·         Mobile Scaffolds shall be designed to restrict maximum height verses length.

Chapter 11

SAFETY IN HIGH RISE BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

Risk management in construction

Many methods are available to reduce high-rise construction risks. They are required to be followed according to the hierarchy, in decreasing order of importance and effectiveness:

(a)   Elimination of scaffold risks-

Apartment blocks are fabricated, or cast and cured at ground level, and then picked up and stacked one on top of another by cranes.

(b)   Substitution of risky products or processes by less risky ones-

Using Climbing formwork, Mast climbers, single and double

(c)  Engineering controls for risk mitigation-

(i)  

Preventing workers from falling – Providing Guardrails and toe-boards at open sides and around voids, Roof brackets and slide guards, Warning lines (tapes) and barricades, Covers on holes, Lifelines and anchors for work positioning systems.

Fig.11.1. Protection for floor opening

(i)     Preventing workers from hitting the ground and dying (“Passive fall arrest”) - Lifelines and anchors for fall restraint and fall arrest systems, Safety nets and air cushions. The lifelines and anchors must be designed and positioned for maximum forces and deflections under worst case scenarios.

Further, the pendulum effect in slipping sideways or from other critical positions and worker hitting the ground or other solid object, must be carefully examined, and lifeline configurations and anchorage points may be correspondingly provided.

(b)   Administrative controls for risk mitigation:

It is necessary that Budget for safety management is provided. Administrative controls include providing training, putting up posters, Warning signs, developing Safe work procedures, Rotation of workers while doing fatiguing and difficult jobs, Implementing Tag out and lockout for critical work.

(c) Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) – It consists of helmet, overalls, goggles, ear-plugs, gloves, safety shoes, gas mask, belt, full body harness, etc. Belts and harnesses are referred to as “active fall arrest” equipment.

Even with all these risk control measures, there will be some residual risks left. These can be controlled and managed only by strict supervision and inspection, to ensure that the controls are implemented, maintained and applied properly, and that the PPE are used by the workers correctly and all the time.

Rescue and emergency preparedness:

During construction, there may crop-up emergencies such as accidents, natural or man- made disasters. These situations are especially critical in high-rise construction. Fires and explosions are common examples of such emergencies.

As a practice it is necessary that safety controls include appropriate rescue equipment and personnel trained in proper rescue procedures. These may include: First aid equipment, tripods and lifting equipment to shift workers from enclosed spaces, resuscitation equipment, fall rescue equipment, etc.

I.     Ramps and Gangways

1.       Ramps and gangways shall be of adequate strength and evenly supported. They shall either have a sufficiently flat slope or shall have cleats fixed to the surface to prevent slipping of workmen. Ramps and gangways shall be kept free from grease, mud, snow or other slipping hazards or other obstructions leading to tripping and accidental fall of a workman. Ramps and gangways meant for transporting materials shall have even surface and be of sufficient width and provided with skirt boards on open sides.

II.      Materials Hoists

1.      The hoist should be erected on a firm base, adequately supported and secured. All materials supporting the hoist shall be appropriately designed and strong enough for the work intended and free from defects.

2.      The size of the drum shall match the size of the rope. Not less than two full turns of rope shall remain on the drum at all times. Ropes shall be securely attached to the drum.

3.      All ropes, chains and other lifting gear shall be properly made of sound materials, free from defects and strong enough for the work intended. They shall be examined by a competent person who shall clearly certify the safe working load on each item and the system.

4.     Hoist ways shall be protected by a substantial enclosure at ground level, at all access points and wherever persons may be struck by any moving part.

5.     Gates at access points should be at least 2 m high wherever possible. Gates shall be kept closed at all times except when required open for immediate movement of materials at that landing place.

6.      All gates shall be fitted with electronic or mechanical interlocks to prevent movement of the hoist in the event of a gate being opened.

7.  Winches used for hoists shall be so constructed that a brake is applied when the control lever or switch is not held in the operating position (dead-man’s handle).

8.      The hoist tower shall be tied to a building or structure at every floor level or at least every 3 m. The height of the tower shall not exceed 6 m after the last tie or a lesser height as recommended by the manufacturer. All ties on a hoist tower shall be secured using right angled couples.

9.     The hoist shall be capable of being operated only from one position at a time. It shall not be operated from the cage. The operator shall have a clear view of all levels or, if he has not, a clear and distinct system of signaling shall be employed.

10.    All hoist platforms shall be fitted with guards and gates to a height of at least 1 m, to prevent materials rolling/falling from the platform.

11.   Where materials extend over the height of the platform guards, a frame shall be fitted and the materials secured to it during hoisting/lowering. (Care should be taken to

ensure that neither the frame nor materials interfere or touch any part of the hoisting mechanism.)

12.     The platform of a goods hoist shall carry a notice stating:

a)   The safe working load; and

b)   That passengers shall not ride on the hoist.

13.    All hoist operators shall be adequately trained and competent, and shall be responsible for ensuring that the hoist is not overloaded or otherwise misused.

14.   All hoists shall be tested and thoroughly examined by a competent person before use on a site, after substantial alteration, modification or repair of hoists, and at least every 6 months.

15.   Every hoist shall be inspected at least once each week by a competent person and a record of these inspections kept.

16.  The lifting wires shall be tested for double the load to be handled at least once in six months. The guy line shall be of adequate strength to perform its function of controlling the movement of members being lifted.

17.        Temporary scaffolding of adequate strength shall be used to support precast members at predetermined supporting points while lifting and placing them in position and connecting them to other members.

18.        After erection of the member, it shall be guyed and braced to prevent it from being tipped or dislodged by accidental impact when setting the next member.

19.        Precast concrete units shall be handled at specific picking points and with specific devices. Girders and beams shall be braced during transportation and handled, in such a way, so as to keep the members upright.

20.        Methods of assembly and erection specified by the designer shall be strictly adhered to at site. Immediately on erecting any unit in position, temporary connections or supports as specified shall be provided before releasing the lifting equipment. The permanent structural connections shall be established at the earliest opportunity.

scheme for safety; the erection scheme should cover safety aspects right from the planning stage up to the actual execution of the work.

General

a.   While engaging persons for the job, the supervisor should check up and make sure that they are skilled in the particular job they have to perform.

b.   The helmets shall be worn properly and at all times during the work and shall conform to the accepted standards

c.   The safety goggles shall be used while performing duties which are hazardous to eye like drilling, cutting and welding. The goggles used shall conform to the accepted standards and should suit individual workers.

d.   The welders and gas cutters shall be equipped with proper protective equipment like gloves, safety boots, aprons and hand shields. The filter glass of the hand shield shall conform to the accepted standards and should be suitable to the eyes of the particular worker.

e.   When the work is in progress, the area shall be cordoned off by barricades to prevent persons from hitting against structural components, or falling into excavated trenches or getting injured by falling objects.

f.   Warning signs shall be displayed where necessary to indicate hazards, for example

(a)   ‘440 VOLTS’, (b) ‘DO NOT SMOKE’, (c) ‘MEN WORKING AHEAD’, etc. Hand lamps shall be of low voltage preferably 24 V to prevent electrical hazards.

g.   All electrically operated hand tools shall be provided with double earthing.

h.   Anchors for guys or ties shall be checked for proper placement. The weight of concrete in which the anchors are embedded shall be checked for uplift and sliding.

·            Split-end eye anchors shall only be used in good, solid rock.

·            The first load lifted by a guy derrick shall be kept at a small height for about 10 min and the anchors immediately inspected for any signs or indications of failure.

·            When a number of trusses or deep girders are loaded in one car or on one truck, all but one being lifted shall be tied back unless they have been tied or braced to prevent their falling over and endangering men unloading.

i.   The erection gang shall have adequate supply of bolts, washers, rivets, pins, etc, of the correct size.

Enough number of bolts shall be used in connecting each piece using a minimum of two bolts in a pattern to ensure that the joint will not fail due to dead load and erection loads. All splice connections in columns, crane girders, etc, shall be completely bolted or riveted or welded as specified in the drawing before erection.

j.   Girders and other heavy complicated structural members may require special erection devices like cleats and hooks, which can be shop assembled and bolted or

Safety of Work persons

General

k. While engaging persons for the job, the supervisor should check up and make sure that they are skilled in the particular job they have to perform.

l.  The helmets shall be worn properly and at all times during the work and shall conform to the accepted standards

m. The safety goggles shall be used while performing duties which are hazardous to eye like drilling, cutting and welding. The goggles used shall conform to the accepted standards and should suit individual workers.

n.   The welders and gas cutters shall be equipped with proper protective equipment like gloves, safety boots, aprons and hand shields. The filter glass of the hand shield shall conform to the accepted standards and should be suitable to the eyes of the particular worker.

o.   When the work is in progress, the area shall be cordoned off by barricades to prevent persons from hitting against structural components, or falling into excavated trenches or getting injured by falling objects.

p. Warning signs shall be displayed where necessary to indicate hazards, for example

(a)   ‘440 VOLTS’, (b) ‘DO NOT SMOKE’, (c) ‘MEN WORKING AHEAD’, etc. Hand lamps shall be of low voltage preferably 24 V to prevent electrical hazards.

q.   All electrically operated hand tools shall be provided with double earthing.

r. Anchors for guys or ties shall be checked for proper placement. The weight of concrete in which the anchors are embedded shall be checked for uplift and sliding.

·            Split-end eye anchors shall only be used in good, solid rock.

·            The first load lifted by a guy derrick shall be kept at a small height for about 10 min and the anchors immediately inspected for any signs or indications of failure.

·            When a number of trusses or deep girders are loaded in one car or on one truck, all but one being lifted shall be tied back unless they have been tied or braced to prevent their falling over and endangering men unloading.

s. The erection gang shall have adequate supply of bolts, washers, rivets, pins, etc, of the correct size.

Enough number of bolts shall be used in connecting each piece using a minimum of two bolts in a pattern to ensure that the joint will not fail due to dead load and erection loads. All splice connections in columns, crane girders, etc, shall be completely bolted or riveted or welded as specified in the drawing before erection.

t.   Girders and other heavy complicated structural members may require special erection devices like cleats and hooks, which can be shop assembled and bolted or

riveted or welded to the piece and may be left permanently in the place after the work.

u.   If a piece is laterally unstable when picked at its center, use of a balance beam is advisable, unless a pair of bridles slings can be placed far enough apart for them to be safe lifting points. The top flange of a truss, girder or long beam may be temporarily reinforced with a structural member laid flat on top of the member and secured temporarily.

On deep girders, and even on some trusses, a safety ‘bar’ running their full length will aid the riggers, fitters and others employed on the bottom flange or bottom chord to work with greater safety. This can be a single 16 mm diameter wire rope through vertical stiffeners of such members about one metre above the bottom flange and clamped at the ends with wire rope clamps. If the holes cannot be provided, short eye bolts can be welded to the webs of the girder at intervals to be removed and the surface chipped or ground to leave it smooth after all work on the piece has been completed.

v. Safety belts shall always be available at work spot to be used whenever necessary. The rope shall be chemically treated to resist dew and rotting. These shall not be tied on sharp edges of steel structures. They shall be tied generally not more than 2 m to 3 m away from the belt.

w. On a guy derrick or climbing crane job, the tool boxes used by the erection staff shall be moved to the new working floor each time the rig is changed. On a mobile crane job, the boxes shall be moved as soon as the crane starts operating in a new area too far away for the men to reach the boxes conveniently.

While working a tall and heavy guy derrick, it is advisable to control tension in guys by hand winches to avoid jerks, which may cause an accident.

x.  The proper size, number and spacing of wire rope clamps shall be used, depending on the diameter of the wire rope. They shall be properly fixed in accordance with good practice. They shall be checked as soon as the rope has been stretched, as the rope, especially if new, tends to stretch under the applied load, which in turn may cause it to shrink slightly in diameter. The clamps shall then be promptly tightened to take care of this new condition. In addition, the clamps shall be inspected frequently to be sure that they have not slipped and are tight enough.

y. When the men can work safely from the steel structure itself, this is preferable to hanging platforms or scaffolds, as it eliminates additional operations, which in turn, reduces the hazard of an accident.

i.          To aid men working on floats or scaffolds, as well as men in erection gangs, or other gangs using small material, such as bolts and drift pins, adequate bolt baskets or similar containers with handles of sufficient strength and attachment to carry the loaded containers, shall be provided.

ii.          The men should be trained to use such containers, and to keep small tools gathered up and put away in tool boxes when not in use. Material shall not

be dumped overboard when a scaffold is to be moved. Rivet heaters shall have safe containers or buckets for hot rivets left over at the end of the day.

z.   During the erection of tall buildings, it is desirable to use nylon nets at a height of 3 m to 4 m to provide safety to men. The safety net should be made from man or machine-made fibre ropes which are UV stabilized and conforming to the acceptable standard.

aa.      Safety against Fire

A fire protection procedure is to be set up if there is to be any flame cutting, burning, heating, riveting or any operation that could start a fire. For precautions to be observed during welding and cutting operations, reference may be made to good practice.

i.     The workers should be instructed not to throw objects like hot rivets, cigarette stubs, etc., around.

ii.     Sufficient fire extinguishers shall be placed at strategic points. Extinguishers shall always be placed in cranes, hoists, compressors and similar places. Where electrical equipment’s are involved, CO2 or dry powder extinguishers shall be provided.

bb.      Riding on a load, tackle or runner shall be prohibited.

The load shall never be allowed to rest on wire ropes. Ropes in operation should not be touched. Wire rope with broken strand shall not be used for erection work. Wire ropes/manila ropes conforming to acceptable standards shall be used for guying.

cc.      Lifting Appliances

Precautions as laid down in “Cranes” above shall be followed.

dd.      Slinging

i.      Chains shall not be joined by bolting or wiring links together. They shall not be shortened by tying knots. A chain, in which the links are locked, stretched or do not move freely shall not be used. The chain shall be free of kinks and twists. Proper eye splices shall be used to attach the chain hooks.

ii.      Pulley blocks of the proper size shall be used to allow the rope free play in the sheave grooves and to protect the wire rope from sharp bends under load. Idle sling should not be carried on the crane hook along with a loaded sling. When idle slings are carried they shall be hooked.

iii.       While using multi-legged slings, each sling or leg shall be loaded evenly and the slings shall be of sufficient length to avoid a wide angle between the legs.

ee.      Riveting Operations

i.          Handling rivets- Care shall be taken while handling rivets so that they do not fall, strike or cause injury to men and material below. Rivet catchers shall have false wooden bottoms to prevent rivets from rebounding.

ii.          Riveting dollies- Canvas, leather or rope slings shall be used for riveting dollies. Chain shall not be used for the purpose.

iii.          Riveting hammers- Snaps and plungers of pneumatic riveting hammers shall be secured to prevent the snap from dropping out of place. The nozzle of the hammer shall be inspected periodically and the wire attachment renewed when born.

iv.          Fire protection- The rivet heating equipment should be as near as possible to the place of work. A pail of water shall always be kept already for quenching the fire during riveting operations and to prevent fires when working near inflammable materials.

v.   Welding and Gas Cutting

i.               For safety and health requirements in electric gas welding and cutting operations, reference may be made to good practice.

ii.               All gas cylinders shall be used and stored in the upright position only and shall be conveyed in trolleys. While handling by cranes they shall be carried in cages. The cylinders shall be marked ‘full’ or ‘empty’ as the case may be. Gas cylinders shall be stored away from open flames and other sources of heat. Oxygen cylinders shall not be stored near combustible gas, oil, grease and similar combustible materials. When the cylinders are in use, cylinder valve key or wrench shall be placed in position. Before a cylinder is moved, cylinder valve shall be closed. All cylinder valves shall be closed when the torches are being replaced or welding is stopped for some reason. The cylinder valve and connections shall not be lubricated.

iii.               Gas cutting and welding torches shall be lighted by means of special lighters and not with matches. The cables from welding equipment should be placed in such a way that they are not run over by traffic. Double earthing shall be provided. Before undertaking welding operations near combustible materials, suitable blanketing shall be provided and fire extinguishers kept nearby. Welding shall not be undertaken in areas where inflammable liquids and gases are stored.

iv.              

Gas lines and compressed air lines shall be identified by suitable colour codes for easy identification, to avoid confusion and to prevent fire and explosion hazards.

11.1  Safety of Structures

General:

A.     The structure itself should be safeguarded during its erection. The first truss of the roof system shall be guyed on each side before the hoisting rope is detached from it. After the subsequent trusses and roof purlins are erected, protective guides shall be firmly established and the required wind bracings shall be erected to prevent the whole structure being blown over by a sudden gale at night. Bracing and guying

precautions shall be taken on every structure until it is complete. Guying shall be specifically done for trusses and structural components which after their erection form an erection device. On structures used for temporary material storage overloading shall be avoided.

B.     Erection of columns shall be immediately followed by vertical bracing between columns before the roof structure is erected.

With reference to the National Building Code 2016 following safety measures need to be followed

1.         Staircase Construction

While staircase is under construction, depending on the type of construction, namely, concrete or brickwork, etc. suitable precautions shall be taken by way of support, formworks, etc., to prevent any collapse. Workmen or any other person shall not be allowed to use such staircases till they are tested and found fit for usage by the Authority/engineer-in-charge. Till the permanent handrails are provided, temporary provisions like ropes, etc., shall be provided on staircases prior to commencement of use of such staircases.

12.1  Safe system of work

If entry to a confined space is unavoidable, a safe system for working inside the space should be developed.

A “Responsible person” should be appointed to carry out a risk assessment of the conditions and the work and activities to be conducted in the confined space, and identify the necessary safety precautions to be taken according to the findings to avoid posing hazards to workers. The “Responsible person” should make recommendations on safety precautions to be taken having regard to the nature of the confined space, the associated risk and the work involved.

Make sure that the safe system of work, including the precautions identified, is developed and put into practice. Everyone involved will need to be properly trained and instructed to make sure they know what to do and how to do it safely.

12.2  Suitable persons for the work to be appointed

Suitable workers should meet the following requirements:

·           Must have received training;

·           Must have sufficient experience in the type of work to be carried out;

·           Must have a suitable build for the work if the risk assessment highlights exceptional constraints as a result of the physical layout;

·           Must be fit to wear breathing apparatus and there is no medical advice against an

individual’s suitability to work in a confined space.

Entry Procedures:

·           Contractors will ensure that no work will be undertaken in Confined Spaces unless a Permit to Work and has been prepared and issued.

·           Only persons who have been thoroughly trained, experienced and are physically fit shall be allowed to work in Confined Spaces.

·           Persons with any of the following medical conditions shall not be allowed to work in confined spaces:

(a)     A history of fits, blackouts or fainting attacks,

(b) A history of heart disease or disorder,

(c) High blood pressure,

(d) Asthma bronchitis, or shortness of breath€ exertion,

(e) Deafness,

(f) Disease involving giddiness or loss of balance,

(g) Claustrophobia or nervous or mental disorder,

(h) Back pain or joint trouble that would limit mobility in confined spaces,

(i) Deformity or disease of the lower limbs limiting movement,

(j) Chronic skin disease,

(k) Serious defects in eye sight or lack of sense of smell,

·      No smoking shall be allowed in or within 2 meters of the opening to any confined space and suitable warning signs shall be positioned.

·      Before any confined space work commences the following equipment shall be available for use:

(a) Multi Gas Monitor; or other suitable gas monitoring equipment.

(b) Sufficient sets of Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus to enable rescue to be carried out;

(c)    Full Body Type Harness for each worker;

(d) Tripod and Lifeline Hoist Rope; for work in situations where a vertical exit from the confined space is required.

(e)     Flame-proof lighting. (Hand lamps not more than 24volts.);

(f) Resuscitation Equipment;

(g) Ventilation Equipment.

The persons involved in the confined space working operations shall need to be thoroughly trained and certified as being competent in the use of the above detailed item of equipment.

12.3  Provision of personal protective equipment

Where the use of “approved breathing apparatus” is recommended in a risk assessment report, or entry into a confined space for underground pipe work is required, it is required to ensure that any person entering or remaining in the confined space:

- is properly wearing an approved breathing apparatus of a type that gives appropriate protection given the nature of the confined space;

- is wearing a suitable safety harness connected to a lifeline that is strong enough to enable him to be pulled out, and that the free end is held by a person staying outside the confined space who has sufficient physical strength to be capable of pulling the worker out of the confined space in an emergency.

12.4     First-aid procedures

Qualified first-aiders need to be available to make proper use of any necessary first-aid equipment provided.

12.5     Mock Drills

Mock Drills for the rescue should be conducted periodically for gaining practical experience and making sure that the rescue personnel understand and are familiar with the necessary rescue procedures.

Chapter 17 DEMOLITION

17.1  INTRODUCTION

Physical injuries and death caused by workplace accidents cause severe social and economic problems. Every year, more fatal accidents occur in the field of building around the world, with one worker dying every 10 minutes as a consequence an occupational accident. Because of its labor-intensive nature and high risks, the construction industry faces significant financial losses as a result of workplace accidents.

17.2  Definition

“Demolition is the science and engineering in safely and efficiently tearing down of building and other man-made structure and also carefully preserving valuable elements for reuse purposes.”

Hazards

·         Collapse of structure

·         Fly materials

·         Falling materials

·         Hit by materials

·         Collapse of equipment, machinery, noise, dust, electric shock, explosion, etc.

PPEs

The following minimum personal protective equipment (PPE) for demolition workers shall be provided:

·         Safety helmet.

·         Safety glasses/goggles

·         Heavy-duty gloves.

·         Safety boots with steel toe caps and preferably with penetrant-resistant soles

·         Appropriate respiratory equipment (as necessary to prevent inhalation of dust and/or particulates

·         Additional PPE, specific to the job task, shall be provided when necessary (e.g., face shield, earplugs, welding goggles/mask).

·         Full-body harnesses and lanyards (with lifelines where required) shall be used whenever a worker could fall more than 1.8 m (6 ft).

17.3   Before any demolition work is commenced and also during the progress of the work

·         All roads and open area adjacent to the work site shall either be closed or suitably protected. Appropriate warning signs shall be displayed for cautioning persons approaching the demolition area. The area shall be cordoned off properly.

·         Protection of adjacent building, underground service lines should be ensured. Underpinning operations shall not be permitted unless adequate measures against collapse of structure are ensured.

·         Before demolition operations begin, shall ensure that the power on all electric service lines is shut off and the lines are cut or disconnected at or outside the demolition site. If it is necessary to maintain electric power during demolition operation, the required service lines shall be adequately protected against damage.

·         No floor, roof or other part of the building shall be overloaded with debris or materials that may render it unsafe.

·         Entries to the demolition area shall be restricted to authorized persons only

Before the demolition starts

·         All utility services, such as electricity, gas, water and fire protection systems, shall be isolated and properly locked and tagged prior to demolition work. The utility services’ main supply shall be disconnected outside the boundary of the demolition work. Tanks and vessels shall be completely disconnected from inlet, outlet and overflow points.

·         It shall be determined if any type of hazardous chemicals, gases, explosives, flammable materials, or similarly dangerous substances have been used in any pipes, tanks, or other equipment on the property. When the presence of any such substances is apparent or suspected, testing and purging shall be performed and the hazard eliminated before demolition is started.

·         Prior to demolition of a multi-story building, an engineering survey shall be made, by a structural engineer, of the structure to determine the condition of the framing, floors and walls, and possibility of unplanned collapse of any portion of the building. Any adjacent structure where personnel may be exposed shall also be similarly checked. The demolition crew shall have in writing evidence that such a survey has been performed.

·         Adjacent structures, public buildings, pedestrian walkways, parking lots, etc., shall be protected from potential demolition debris. Bracing shall be installed, where needed, to ensure stability of adjacent structures.

·         Barricades shall be erected around the demolition work area. Signs with the words “Danger - Demolition in Progress” in local language and English shall be erected at each approach to the demolition area.

·         Before demolition operations begin, shall ensure that the power on all electric service lines is shut off and the lines are cut or disconnected at or outside the demolition site. If it is necessary to maintain electric power during demolition operation, the required service lines shall be adequately protected against damage.

·         No floor, roof or other part of the building shall be overloaded with debris or materials that may render it unsafe.

·         Entries to the demolition area shall be restricted to authorized persons only.

Stability during demolition

·         Frequent inspections shall be performed during demolition activities to identify hazards that may develop from weakened or overloaded floors, unsupported walls, loose material, etc. Steps shall be immediately taken to prevent premature collapse of any part of the structure. Personnel shall not be permitted to work where such hazards exist until they are corrected by shoring, bracing or other effective means.

·         Masonry, concrete and other debris shall not be permitted to fall upon a floor so as to exceed the safe load capacity of the floor.

·         Lateral supports shall not be removed from more than one story of wall before starting to demolish it. When a wall from which supports have been removed is left standing, including during overnight and off-work hours, adequate bracing shall be provided to prevent collapse.

·         Structural or load-supporting members on any floor shall not be cut or removed until all stories above it have been completely demolished and removed.

·         Personnel shall not be permitted to work on top of a roof, wall, etc., when weather conditions could create a hazardous environment.

17.4  Work area clearance:

·         Safe means of access and egress from all work areas shall be provided

·         Work areas, ladders, stairways and walkways shall be kept clear of material and debris.

·         Nails in timber shall be removed or bent over.

·         Glass in windows, doors, partitions, etc., shall be completely removed prior to structural demolition.

17.5  Structural steel removal:

·         A demolition procedure for steel structures (e.g., storage tanks, silos, towers, pipe racks) shall be developed and submitted prior to demolition.

·         Steel frame construction shall be demolished column length by column length and tier by tier.

·         Any structural steel member being removed shall not be under any stress other than its own weight.

·         Steel members shall be chained or lashed in place prior to cutting or dismantling to prevent uncontrolled swinging or dropping.

17.6  Safety Precautions

·         Prior to permitting employee or workers to start demolition, an engineering survey shall be done and any adjacent structure where employee exposed shall also be checked. The employer shall have in writing, evidence that such a survey has been performed.

·         A    definite Plan    of     Procedure for demolition work shall be     prepared by contractor and finalized in consultant with competent engineer. A copy of the Survey Report and the Plans / Method of operation shall be maintained at job site for the duration of the demolition operation.

·         Post completion of above-mentioned points Contractor shall implement the plan in actual practice.

·         Any device or equipment such as Scaffolds, Ladders, Derrick, etc., shall be constructed, installed, inspected, maintained and operated in accordance with the regulations governing.

·         Demolition shall be conducted under competent supervision and safe working conditions. Prior commencement of each stage the supervisor shall brief the worker in detail regarding the safety aspects.

·         Demolition in those structures which are damaged by fire, flood, explosion, or other cause shall be shored or braced.

·         All electric (MCB & meters), gas, water and other service lines shall be shut off before demolition starts. These utility services shall be notified in advance.

·         Caution boards and barricading shall be placed before the operation.

·         All the roads and open areas adjacent to work site shall be protected and Caution Boards / Danger Sign in local language to be displayed. Unauthorized entry shall be efficiently kept under control.

·         Provisions shall be made for at least two independent exits for escape of workmen during emergency.

·         During night, red lights or luminescent sign shall be placed around all barricades.

·         Walkways and passageways shall be provided for workmen and they will be strictly instructed to use these only. Such walkways shall be kept adequately lighted and free from debris and other materials.

·         Demolition shall always proceed in floor by floor in descending order (top to bottom). Wall shall be removed part by part.

·         While breaking roof slabs, workmen are not allowed to sit on the same floor but on a separate platform and if in case, they must fasten their lanyard or independent lifeline.

·         Debris shall not be allowed to be thrown from height. Removal of debris promptly using by Metal Chutes installed at an angle of more than 450 from top to bottom.

·         Only experienced workmen shall be engaged for demolition operation.

·         All materials which are to be removed causes dust formation, shall be sprinkled with water to ossify it.

·         If asbestos, hazardous materials, hazardous chemicals, gases, explosives, flammable   materials   or   similarly dangerous   substances   found at   work   site then testing and removal / hazard elimination shall be performed.

Chapter 18

HAND AND PORTABLE POWER TOOLS

18.1  . Hand and Portable Power Tools

Hand and power tools are a common part the work in construction industry. These tools help to easily perform tasks that otherwise would be difficult or impossible task. However, these simple tools can be hazardous and have the potential for causing severe injuries when used or maintained improperly. Special attention toward hand and power tool safety is necessary to reduce or eliminate these hazards.

18.2.Hazards

Hand tools are tools that are powered manually. Hand tools include anything from axes to wrenches. The greatest hazards posed by hand tools result from misuse and improper maintenance.

Some examples include the following:

·         If a chisel is used as a screwdriver, the tip of the chisel may break and fly off, hitting the user or other employees.

·         If a wooden handle on a tool, such as a hammer or an axe, is loose, splintered, or cracked, the head of the tool may fly off and strike the user or other employees.

·         If the jaws of a wrench are sprung, the wrench might slip.

·         If impact tools such as chisels, wedges, or drift pins have mushroomed heads, the heads might shatter on impact, sending sharp fragments flying toward the user or other employees.

The employer is responsible for the safe condition of tools and equipment used by employees. Employers shall not issue or permit the use of unsafe hand tools. Employees should be trained in the proper use and handling of tools and equipment.

Employees, when using saw blades, knives, or other tools, should direct the tools away from aisle areas and away from other employees working in proximity. Knives and scissors must be sharp; dull tools can cause more hazards than sharp ones. Cracked saw blades must be removed from service.

Wrenches must not be used when jaws are sprung to the point that slippage occurs. Impact tools such as drift pins, wedges, and chisels must be kept free of mushroomed heads. The wooden handles of tools must not be splintered.

Iron or steel hand tools may produce sparks that can be an ignition source around flammable substance. Where this hazard exists, spark-resistant tools made of non-ferrous materials should be used where flammable gases, highly volatile liquids, and other explosive substances are stored or used.

Power tools must be fitted with guards and safety switches; they are extremely hazardous when used improperly. The types of power tools are determined by their power source: electric, pneumatic, liquid fuel, hydraulic, and powder actuated.

To prevent hazards associated with the use of power tools, workers should observe the following general precautions:

·         Never carry a tool by the cord or hose.

·         Never yank the cord or the hose to disconnect it from the receptacle.

·         Keep cords and hoses away from heat, oil, and sharp edges.

·         Disconnect tools when not using them, before servicing and cleaning them, and when changing accessories such as blades, bits, and cutters.

·         Keep all people not involved with the work at a safe distance from the work area.

·         Secure work with clamps or a vise, freeing both hands to operate the tool.

·         Avoid accidental starting. Do not hold fingers on the switch button while carrying a plugged-in tool.

·         Maintain tools with care; keep them sharp and clean for best performance.

·         Follow instructions in the user’s manual for lubricating and changing accessories.

·         Be sure to keep good footing and maintain good balance when operating power tools.

·         Wear proper apparel for the task. Loose clothing, ties, or jewellery can become caught in moving parts.

·         Remove all damaged portable electric tools from use and tag them: “Do Not Use.”

18.2.Guards:

Principles of guarding

The exposed moving parts of power tools need to be safeguarded. Belts, gears, shafts, pulleys, sprockets, spindles, drums, flywheels, chains, or other reciprocating, rotating, or moving parts of equipment must be guarded.

Machine guards, as appropriate, must be provided to protect the operator and others from the following:

•         Point of operation.

•         In-running nip points.

•         Rotating parts.

•         Flying chips and sparks.

Safety guards must never be removed when a tool is being used. Portable circular saws having a blade greater than 2 inches in diameter must be always equipped with guards. An upper guard must cover the entire blade of the saw. A retractable lower guard must cover the teeth of the saw, except where it contacts the work material. The lower guard must automatically return to the covering position when the tool is withdrawn from the work material.

Operating Controls and Switches

The hand-held power tools must be equipped with a constant pressure switch or control that shuts off the power when pressure is released.

These tools also may be equipped with a “lock-on” control, if it allows the worker to also shut off the control in a single motion using the same finger or fingers. It is recommended that the constant-pressure control switch be regarded as the preferred device. Other hand-held power tools such as circular saws having a blade diameter greater than 2 inches (5.08 centimetres), chain saws, and percussion tools with no means of holding accessories securely must be equipped with a constant-pressure switch.

18.3.Electric Tools

Employees using electric tools must be aware of several dangers. Among the most serious hazards are electrical burns and shocks. Electrical shocks, which can lead to injuries such as heart failure and burns, are among the major hazards associated with electric powered tools.

Under certain conditions, even a small amount of electric current can result in fibrillation of the heart and death. An electric shock also can cause the user to fall off a ladder or other elevated work surface and be injured due to the fall. To protect the user from shock and burns, electric tools must have a three-wire cord with a ground and be plugged into a grounded receptacle, be double insulated, or be powered by a low voltage isolation transformer.

Three-wire cords contain two current carrying conductors and a grounding conductor. Any time an adapter is used to accommodate a two-hole receptacle, the adapter wire must be attached to a known ground. The third prong must never be removed from the plug. Double- insulated tools are available that provide protection against electrical shock without third-wire grounding. On double insulated tools, an internal layer of protective insulation completely isolates the external housing of the tool.

The following general practices should be followed when using electric tools

•         Operate electric tools within their design limitations.

•         Use gloves and appropriate safety footwear when using electric tools.

•         Store electric tools in a dry place when not in use

•         Do not use electric tools in damp or wet locations unless they are approved for that purpose.

•         Keep work areas well lighted when operating electric tools.

•         Ensure that cords from electric tools do not present a tripping hazard.

In the construction industry, employees who use electric tools must be protected by ground- fault circuit interrupters or an assured equipment-grounding conductor program.

Fig.19.2 Working with portable tools

18.2. Portable Abrasive Wheel Tools:

Portable abrasive grinding, cutting, polishing, and wire buffing wheels create special safety problems because they may throw off flying fragments. Abrasive wheel tools must be equipped with guards that:

(1)   Cover the spindle end, nut, and flange projections.

(2)   Maintain proper alignment with the wheel; and

(3)   Do not exceed the strength of the fastenings.

Before an abrasive wheel is mounted, it must be inspected closely for damage and should be sound or ring-tested to ensure that it is free from cracks or defects. To test, wheels should be tapped gently with a light, non-metallic instrument. If the wheels sound cracked or dead, they must not be used because they could fly apart in operation. A stable and undamaged wheel, when tapped, will give a clear metallic tone or “ring.”

To prevent an abrasive wheel from cracking, it must fit freely on the spindle. The spindle nut must be tightened enough to hold the wheel in place without distorting the flange. Always follow the manufacturer’s recommendations. Take care to ensure that the spindle speed of the machine will not exceed the maximum operating speed marked on the wheel.

An abrasive wheel may disintegrate or explode during start-up. Allow the tool to come up to operating speed prior to grinding or cutting. The employee should never stand in the plane of rotation of the wheel as it accelerates to full operating speed. Portable grinding tools need to

be equipped with safety guards to protect workers not only from the moving wheel surface, but also from flying fragments in case of wheel breakage.

While using a powered grinder

18.2.1.  Always use eye or face protection.

18.2.2.  Turn off the power when not in use.

18.2.3.  Never clamp a hand-held grinder in a vise.

18.3.Pneumatic Tools

Pneumatic tools are powered by compressed air and include chippers, drills, hammers, and sanders. There are several dangers associated with the use of pneumatic tools. First and foremost is the danger of getting hit by one of the tool's attachments or by fastener the worker is using with the tool. Pneumatic tools must be checked to see that the tools are fastened securely to the air hose to prevent them from becoming disconnected. A short wire or positive locking device attaching the air hose to the tool must also be used and will serve as an added safeguard.

If an air hose is more than ½-inch (12.7 millimeters) in diameter, a safety excess flow valve must be installed at the source of the air supply to reduce pressure in case of hose failure.

In general, the same precautions should be taken with an air hose that are recommended for electric cords, because the hose is subject to the same kind of damage or accidental striking, and because it also presents tripping hazards.

When using pneumatic tools, a safety clip or retainer must be installed to prevent attachments such as chisels on a chipping hammer from being ejected during tool operation. Airless spray guns that atomize paints and fluids at pressures of 6,890 kPa or more per square inch must be equipped with automatic or visible manual safety devices that will prevent pulling the trigger until the safety device is manually released.

Eye protection is required, and head and face protection are recommended for employees working with pneumatic tools. Screens must also be set up to protect nearby workers from being struck by flying fragments around chippers, riveting guns, staplers, or air drills. Compressed air guns should never be pointed toward anyone. Workers should never “dead- end” them against themselves or anyone else. A chip guard must be used when compressed air is used for cleaning.

Use of heavy jack hammers can cause fatigue and strains. Heavy rubber grips reduce these effects by providing a secure handhold. Workers operating a jack hammer must wear safety glasses and safety shoes that protect them against injury if the jackhammer slips or falls. A face shield also should be used. Noise is another hazard associated with pneumatic tools. Working with noisy tools such as jackhammers requires proper, effective use of appropriate hearing protection.

Chapter-19

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

19.1.  Introduction

Controlling a hazard at its source is the best way to protect employees. Depending on the hazard or workplace conditions, the use of engineering or work practice controls to manage or eliminate hazards to the greatest extent possible. When engineering, work practice and administrative controls are not feasible or do not provide sufficient protection, employers must provide personal protective equipment (PPE) to their employees and ensure its use. Personal protective equipment, commonly referred to as “PPE”, is equipment worn to minimize exposure to a variety of hazards. Examples of PPE include such items as gloves, foot and eye protection, protective hearing devices (earplugs, muffs) hard hats, respirators and full body suits.

Fig.19.1. Classification of Personal Protective Equipment’s 

To ensure the greatest possible protection for construction employees in the workplace, the cooperative efforts of both employers and employees will help in establishing and maintaining a safe and healthy work environment. Following responsibilities are important for effective and efficient application of PPE in construction sector

·         Employers are responsible for

o   Identifying and providing appropriate PPE for employees.

o   Training employees in the use and care of the PPE.

o   Maintaining PPE, including replacing worn or damaged PPE.

o   Periodically reviewing, updating and evaluating the effectiveness of the PPE program.

·         Employees should:

o   Properly wear PPE,

o   Attend training sessions on PPE,

o   Care for, clean and maintain PPE as per specification

o   Inform a supervisor of the need to repair or replace PPE

19.1.Eye and Face Protection

Construction Employees can be exposed to a large number of hazards that pose danger to their eyes and face. Employers to ensure that employees have appropriate eye or face protection if they are exposed to eye or face hazards from flying particles, molten metal, liquid chemicals, acids or caustic liquids, chemical gases or vapors, potentially infected material or potentially harmful light radiation.

19.2. Types of Eye Protection:

Selection of suitable and appropriate eye and face protection for the construction workers should take into consideration the following elements:

19.2.1.  Ability to protect against specific workplace hazards.

19.2.2.  Should fit properly and be reasonably comfortable to wear.

19.2.3.  Should provide unrestricted vision and movement.

19.2.4.  Should be durable and cleanable.

19.2.5.  Should allow unrestricted functioning of any other required PPE.

Some of the most common types of eye and face protection include the following

19.2.6.  Safety spectacles/Glasses: These protective eyeglasses have safety frames constructed of metal or plastic and impact-resistant lenses. Side shields are available on some models.

19.2.7.  Goggles: These are tight-fitting eye protection that completely cover the eyes, eye sockets and the facial area immediately surrounding the eyes and provide protection from impact, dust and splashes. Some goggles will fit over corrective lenses.

19.2.8.  Welding shields: Constructed of vulcanized fiber or fiberglass and fitted with a filtered lens, welding shields protect eyes from burns caused by infrared or intense radiant light; they also protect both the eyes and face from flying sparks, metal spatter and slag chips produced during welding, brazing, soldering and cutting operations. Welding shield requires filter lenses to have a shade number appropriate to protect against the specific hazards of the work being performed in order to protect against harmful light radiation.

19.2.9.  Laser safety goggles: These specialty goggles protect against intense concentrations of light produced by lasers. The type of laser safety goggles an employer chooses will depend upon the equipment and operating conditions in the workplace.

19.2.10.              

Face shields: These transparent sheets of plastic extend from the eyebrows to below the chin and across the entire width of the employee’s head. Some are polarized for glare protection. Face shields protect against nuisance dusts and potential splashes or sprays of hazardous liquids but will not provide adequate protection against impact hazards. Face shields used in combination with goggles or safety spectacles will provide additional protection against impact hazards.

19.1.Protection against Hot work Operation

The intense light associated with welding operations in the construction sector can cause serious and sometimes permanent eye damage if operators do not wear proper eye protection. The intensity of light or radiant energy produced by welding, cutting or brazing operations varies according to a number of factors including the task producing the light, the electrode size and the arc current.

19.2.Head Protection:

Protecting construction employees from potential head injuries is a key element of any safety program. A head injury can impair an employee for life or it can be fatal. Wearing a safety helmet or hard hat is one of the easiest ways to protect an employee’s head from injury. Hard hats can protect employees from impact and penetration hazards as well as from electrical shock and burn hazards. Employers must ensure that their employees wear head protection if any of the following apply:

19.2.1.  Objects might fall from above and strike them on the head;

19.2.2.  They might bump their heads against fixed objects, such as exposed pipes or beams; or

19.2.3.  There is a possibility of accidental head contact with electrical hazards.

Whenever there is a danger of objects falling from above, such as working below others who are using tools or working under a conveyor belt, head protection must be worn. Hard hats must be worn with the bill forward to protect employees properly.

In general, protective helmets or hard hats should do the following:

19.2.4.  Resist penetration by objects.

19.2.5.  Absorb the shock of a blow.

19.2.6.  Be water-resistant and slow burning.

19.2.7.  Have clear instructions explaining proper adjustment and replacement of the suspension and headband.

Head protection that is either too large or too small is inappropriate for use, even if it meets all other requirements. Protective head gear must fit appropriately on the body and for the head size of each individual.

Types of Hard Hat:

Hard hats are divided into three industrial classes:

Class A hard hats: Provide impact and penetration resistance along with limited voltage protection (up to 2,200 volts).

Class B hard hats: Provide the highest level of protection against electrical hazards, with high- voltage shock and burn protection (up to 20,000 volts). They also provide protection from impact and penetration hazards by flying/falling objects.

Class C hard hats: Provide lightweight comfort and impact protection but offer no protection from electrical hazards.

Another class of protective headgear on the market is called a “bump hat,” designed for use in areas with low head clearance. They are recommended for areas where protection is needed from head bumps and lacerations. These are not designed to protect against falling or flying objects. Periodic cleaning and inspection will extend the useful life of protective headgear. A daily inspection of the hard hat shell, suspension system and other accessories for holes, cracks, tears or other damage that might compromise the protective value of the hat is essential. Paints, paint- thinners and some cleaning agents can weaken the shells of hard hats and may eliminate electrical resistance.

Hard hats with any of the following defects should be removed from service and replaced:

19.1.1.  Perforation, cracking, or deformity of the brim or shell;

Indication of exposure of the brim or shell to heat, chemicals or ultraviolet light and other radiation (in addition to a loss of surface gloss, such signs include chalking or 

19.1.  Foot and Leg Protection:

Employees who face possible foot or leg injuries from falling or rolling objects or from crushing or penetrating materials should wear protective footwear. Also, employees whose work involves exposure to hot substances or corrosive or poisonous materials must have protective gear to cover exposed body parts, including legs and feet. If an employee’s feet may be exposed to electrical hazards, non-conductive footwear should be worn. On the other hand, workplace exposure to static electricity may necessitate the use of conductive footwear.

Examples of situations in which an employee should wear foot and/or leg protection include:

19.1.1.  When heavy objects such as barrels or tools might roll onto or fall on the employee’s feet;

19.1.2.  Working with sharp objects such as nails or spikes that could pierce the soles or uppers of ordinary shoes;

19.1.3.  Exposure to molten metal that might splash on feet or legs;

19.1.4.  Working on or around hot, wet or slippery surfaces; and

19.1.5.          Working when electrical hazards are present. Foot and leg protection choices include the following:

19.1.6.  Leggings: protect the lower legs and feet from heat hazards such as molten metal or welding sparks. Safety snaps allow leggings to be removed quickly.

19.1.7.  Metatarsal guards: Protect the instep area from impact and compression. Made of aluminium, steel, fibre or plastic, these guards may be strapped to the outside of shoes.

19.1.8.  Toe guards: Fit over the toes of regular shoes to protect the toes from impact and compression hazards. They may be made of steel, aluminium or plastic.

19.1.9.  Combination foot and shin guards: Protect the lower legs and feet, and may be used in combination with toe guards when greater protection is needed.

19.1.10.               Safety shoes: Have impact-resistant toes and heat-resistant soles that protect the feet against hot work surfaces common in roofing, paving and hot metal industries. The metal insoles of some safety shoes protect against puncture wounds. Safety shoes may also be designed to be electrically conductive to prevent the build-up of static electricity in areas with the potential for explosive atmospheres or nonconductive to protect employees from workplace electrical hazards.

19.1.11.               Electrical hazard, safety-toe shoes are nonconductive and will prevent the wearers’ feet

from completing an electrical circuit to the ground. These shoes can protect against open circuits of up to 600 volts in dry conditions and should be used in conjunction with other insulating equipment and additional precautions to reduce the risk of an employee becoming a path for hazardous electrical energy.

Care of Protective Footwear:

As with all protective equipment, safety footwear should be inspected prior to each use. Shoes and leggings should be checked for wear and tear at reasonable intervals. This includes looking for cracks or holes, separation of materials, broken buckles or laces.

19.2.Hand and Arm Protection:

If a workplace hazard assessment reveals that employees face potential injury to hands and arms that cannot be eliminated through engineering and work practice controls, employers must ensure that employees wear appropriate protection. Potential hazards include skin absorption of harmful substances, chemical or thermal burns, electrical dangers, bruises, abrasions, cuts, punctures, fractures and amputations. Protective equipment includes gloves, finger guards and arm coverings or elbow-length gloves. Employers should explore all possible engineering and work practice controls to eliminate hazards and use PPE to provide additional protection against hazards that cannot be completely eliminated through other means.

Types of Protective Gloves:

There are many types of gloves available today to protect against a wide variety of hazards. The nature of the hazard and the operation involved will affect the selection of gloves. The variety of potential occupational hand injuries makes selecting the right pair of gloves challenging. It is essential that employees use gloves specifically designed for the hazards and tasks found in their workplace because gloves designed for one function may not protect against a different function even though they may appear to be an appropriate protective device.

The following are examples of some factors that may influence the selection of protective gloves for a workplace.

19.2.1.  Type of chemicals handled.

19.2.2.  Nature of contact (total immersion, splash, etc.).

19.2.3.  Duration of contact.

19.2.4.  Area requiring protection (hand only, forearm, arm).

19.2.5.  Grip requirements (dry, wet, oily).

19.2.6.  Thermal protection.

19.2.7.  Size and comfort.

19.2.8.  Abrasion/resistance requirements.

Gloves made from a wide variety of materials are designed for many types of workplace hazards. In general, gloves fall into four groups:

19.2.9.  Gloves made of leather, canvas or metal mesh;

19.2.10.               Fabric and coated fabric gloves;

19.2.11.               Chemical- and liquid-resistant gloves

Leather, Canvas or Metal Mesh Gloves:

19.2.12.               Leather gloves: Protect against sparks, moderate heat, blows, chips and rough objects.

19.2.13.               Aluminized gloves: provide reflective and insulating protection against heat and require an insert made of synthetic materials to protect against heat and cold.

19.2.14.               Aramid fiber gloves: protect against heat and cold, are cut- and abrasive-resistant and wear well.

19.2.15.               Synthetic gloves: of various materials offer protection against heat and cold, are cut- and abrasive-resistant and may withstand some diluted acids. These materials do not stand up against alkalis and solvents

Fabric and Coated fabric Gloves:

19.2.16.               Fabric gloves: protect against dirt, slivers, chafing and abrasions. They do not provide sufficient protection for use with rough, sharp or heavy materials. Adding a plastic coating will strengthen some fabric gloves.

19.2.17.               Coated fabric gloves: are normally made from cotton flannel with napping on one side. By coating the unnapped side with plastic, fabric gloves are transformed into general-purpose hand protection offering slip-resistant qualities. These gloves are used for tasks ranging from handling bricks and wire to chemical laboratory containers

Chemical and Liquid Resistant Gloves:

Chemical-resistant gloves are made with different kinds of rubber: natural, butyl, neoprene, nitrile and fluorocarbon; or various kinds of plastic: polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyvinyl alcohol and polyethylene. These materials can be blended or laminated for better performance. As a general rule, the thicker the glove material, the greater the chemical resistance but thick gloves may impair grip and dexterity, having a negative impact on safety.

Hand Arm Vibration (HAV) Protection for the construction workers:

Finger exposed gloves are not recommended. Gloves which meet or exceed ISO 10819 criteria are recommended, but using certified Anti Vibration gloves alone will not solve the HAV problem.

Care of Protective Gloves:

Protective gloves should be inspected before each use to ensure that they are not torn, punctured or made ineffective in any way. A visual inspection will help detect cuts or tears but a more thorough inspection by filling the gloves with water and tightly rolling the cuff towards the fingers will help reveal any pinhole leaks.

22.8. Body Protection:

Any construction employees who face possible bodily injury of any kind that cannot be eliminated through engineering, work practice or administrative controls, must wear appropriate body protection while performing their jobs. In addition to cuts and radiation, the following are examples of workplace hazards that could cause bodily injury:

·         Temperature extremes;

·         Potential impacts from tools, machinery and materials;

·         Hazardous chemical

There are many varieties of protective clothing available for specific hazards. Employers are required to ensure that their employees wear personal protective equipment only for the parts of the body exposed to possible injury.

Fig.22.5. Fall Restraint and Fall Arrest System for Construction Workers

22.9   Hearing Protection:

Hearing protectors or hearing protective devices (HPD), the last line of defense against hazardous noise, are a form of noise control in that they block the path of the noise from the source to the ear. It is estimated that 1.3 billion people suffer from hearing loss due to noise exposure. Worldwide, occupational noise exposure is responsible for 16% of cases of disabling hearing loss in adults. Occupational Noise Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL) can limit an individual’s ability to communicate with others and can lead to increased social stress, sadness, diminish confidence, poor self- identity, and bad interpersonal relationships. For industrial noise, elimination or reduction of noise through engineering or administrative control is the best way of occupational NIHL intervention. NIHL is 100% preventable with appropriate measures. Hearing protection Devices are the secondary level of protection measure. Both earmuffs and earplugs are commonly used as personal HPDs among the workers. In this article, different types of HPDs have been described briefly.

·         Earplugs: Earplugs can be classified by size, shape and construction materials such as; custom molded, pre-molded and expandable. Most of them are manufactured from soft plastic, PVC, silicone and Polyurethane.

·         Expandable earplugs: They are considered the most comfortable. Since they are porous and soft. They are made from slow recovery closed cell foam. They offer high attenuation since they expand against the outer ear canal and form an acoustic seal with less pressure. Expandable earplugs are mainly of disposable type. They are also available in fiberglass or silicon material. It may be corded or non-corded.

·         Pre-molded earplugs: They are molded to fit the ear canal. They are available in disposable and re-useable types and come in foam or PVC material. One type is shaped like a half ball with a narrow stem to which a thin cord can be attached to hold the plugs together.

·         Custom-molded earplugs: Earplugs can also be custom molded from an impression taken from the ears.

·         Electronic earplugs: This is special type of earplug with state-of the art sound level dependent technology fitted with Environmental microphones to help improve situational awareness and communications in challenging environments. It is costlier that other type of earplugs.

·         Ear caps or Semi-Inserts or Semi-aural or Banded Ear plugs: They consist of flexible tips, made from silicone, vinyl or foam in mushroom, hollow bullet or conical shape, attached to a lightweight plastic headband. They are easily removed and replaced. They can be used under the chin and behind the head.

·         Earmuffs: Ear muffs are made from rigid cups, are mostly oval shaped, and are designed to cover the external ear completely. They are held in place by a preformed or spring-loaded adjustable band and are sealed round the rim of each cup, with a soft foam-filled or liquid- filled circumaural cushion, to achieve a continuous seal contact. There are also earmuffs available, which can be attached to the safety helmet directly. In hot and humid environment, they are much uncomfortable more than earplugs and may restrict head movement. Hair, beards, spectacles frame can alter the protection.

·         Passive Earmuffs: The material and structure of the earmuff device is used to decrease the sound level that is transmitted through the ear canal. Materials, such as a cupped foam coated in hard plastic, will block sound due to the thick and dampening properties of the foam. Ear muffs are also available which can reproduce music or messages from external units.

·        

Active Noise Control Earmuffs: They are now available which cancel the low frequency band noise inside the cups by out-of-phase generated sound. They provide good attenuation at low frequencies (up to 20 dB) and also serve as classical passive earmuffs with good attenuation at high frequencies. They are still expensive and have the possibility of electronic failure.

How to use earplug correctly: Roll-Pull-Hold-Check Technique:

·         Roll: The earplug up into a small, thin snake like object with fingers. Clean your hand before rolling it.

·         Pull: The top of the ear upward and backward with the opposite hand to straighten the ear canal. The rolled-up earplug should slide right in.

·         Hold: The earplug in with the finger as far as it will go. Count to 20 or 30 out loud while waiting for the plug to expand and fill the ear canal. Your voice will sound muffled when the plug has made a good seal.

·         Check: The fit when you are all done. The entire foam body of the earplug should be within the ear canal. Try cupping your hands tightly over your ears. If, sounds are much more muffled with your hands in place, the earplug may not be sealing properly. Take them out repeat the procedure with great care.

22.9   Respiratory Protection Equipments for the Construction Workers:

Occupational lung diseases like pneumoconiosis are one of the most important public health problems in the construction industries worldwide. Occupational lung diseases are mainly caused by long-term, repeated, exposure, but even a severe, single exposure to a hazardous agent can damage the respiratory system. It has also been established by various epidemiological studies that respiratory diseases like asthma, Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases (COPD) are also associated with the occupational exposure of hazardous agents. Some agents of occupational lungs diseases like Asbestos are causally associated with the development of respiratory and non- respiratory occupational cancer. The best way to prevent occupational lung diseases is to avoid the inhaled substances that cause lung diseases. So, selection of proper filtering face mask or particulate respirator is of utmost importance.

Filtering Face Mask:

A filtering half mask or filtering face piece or protective mask is one in which the face-piece consists entirely or substantially of filter material or comprises a face-piece in which the main filter(s) form an inseparable part of the device. It belongs to personal protective device that is worn on the face, covers at least the nose and mouth, and is used to reduce the wearer’s risk of inhaling hazardous airborne particles.

22.10  Conclusion:

Employers should make sure that each construction employee has the detailed information about applicability, knowledge to wear and use PPE before they are allowed to perform work. If an employer believes that a previously trained employee is not demonstrating the proper understanding and skill level in the use of PPE, that employee should be provided adequate training. The employer must document the distribution and maintenance of PPEs.

Chapter 23

FIRE PREVENTION AND CONTROL

23.1   INTRODUCTION

Fire is a chemical reaction of Fuel, Energy and Oxygen and is represented by fire tetrahedron also called fire pyramid.

Earlier fire was represented by fire triangle with three elements i.e. oxygen, heat and fuel, but it was later identified that another element plays a vital role in existence and spread of fire which is chain reaction. Hence, now fire is defined by the four elements which are

1.      Sufficient heat for raising the material to the ignition temperature.

2.      Adequate oxygen for sustaining combustion.

3.      Combustible material or fuel.

4.      Exothermic chain reaction in the combustible material.

To understand the characteristics of fire these elements plays a vital role and also provides for the methods to put fire out.

1.      Cooling to reduce heat availability for fire to spread and eventually sustain.

2.      Smothering to cut off oxygen supply by barricading the fuel from air supply.

3.      Starvation to remove/restrict fuel supply because without any material to burn fire cannot exist.

4.      Interference to chain reaction by eliminating free radicals in fuel.

To put out fire any one or more of above-mentioned methods can be utilized, to do so for cooling, smothering and interference to chain reaction different fire extinguishing agents are used like:

Ø  Sand

Ø  Water

Ø  CO2

Ø  Foam

§  Mechanical Foam

§  Chemical Foam

Ø  Dry Chemical Powder

To deliver these agents to the source of fire various mechanisms are used out of which some are portable while other are fixed installation type. Some of the commonly used mechanisms are:

1.      Fire extinguishers

2.      Hose real

3.      Fire hydrant

4.      Portable fire pumps

5.      Fire tenders

Fig.23.2. Fire Extinguishers

 Each type of mechanism has its suitability at different stages of fire which can be understood by fire growth curve.

Fire extinguishers are used as first line of control and hence are effective in incipient and smoldering stages. Whereas, other mechanisms are mostly used in fire at flaming stages onwards.

Fire is a prominent hazard with high risk in a construction site. Prevention and control of fire on a construction site is extremely crucial because of following issues:

1.      Random stacking of construction material.

2.      Fire load and its distribution cannot be determined exactly.

3.      Non availability of established firefighting system.

4.      Non availability of qualified fire fighters.

5.      No clear path of approach for firefighting.

6.      No clear path for escape for rescue.

7.      Migrating workers not adequately trained and competent for fire emergencies.

The constraint with the construction sites are that most of the above issue cannot be even addressed completely. Therefore, it is not possible to ensure prevention of fire on a construction site and hence, in case of fire outbreak preparedness not only to control but also to contain spread of fire, shall be considered at par with the prevention.

In view of the above, it is required that special emphasize to be given to the fire prevention and its control measures on a construction site. This chapter will cover various aspects of fire safety in construction under two major parts:

1.      Prevention – This part will cover the planning which include requirement determination, resource availability and training.

2.      Control – This part will cover the management and preparedness in case of fire emergency.

23.1  Prevention:

Prevention can only be achieved with effective planning, for which loads of data and competency is required to achieve the adequate level of prevention in spite of the constraints with construction stated above.

To start with the planning first question is ‘Who is going to plan?’. Competency to plan the fire

prevention system for construction sites having high potential and diversity need in-depth

knowledge and expertise. The planning in discussion should not be restricted to only one time (i.e. initial) but should be a continuous activity, as the prevention requirements will vary with variation on the construction site which will happen regular and on day-to-day basis. Therefore, team of qualified and experienced professional from following backgrounds should be planning and continuously assessing the fire prevention:

1.      Construction

2.      Stores

3.      Fire

4.      Safety.

Once the planning team has been identified the next question arises is ‘How the planning is done?’ Although, the planning is a difficult task because everything going to be worked out will be based on the data available and estimation. However, following steps will help in achieving the estimation as close to the accuracy as possible:

1. Identification of combustible items in construction site – There are varieties of materials used in the construction some are used as part of building material whereas some are used as accessories and support, irrespective of whether that can be consumed or not. Some of the common combustible items used in construction sites are:

a. Wood

b. Oil based Paint

c. Paper

d. Tar

e. Plastic

f. Diesel

g. Rubber

h. Engine/lubrication Oils

i. Cotton

j. Electric cables

k. Ply

l. Pressurized gas cylinders

m. Mica

n. Explosive

Based on the construction activities planned the combustible materials and their maximum quantity that can be available at any instant of time can be determined.

1.      Identifying ignition source – In construction site commonly following ignition sources can possibly be present that can lead to fire outbreak:

a.      Spark from grinding/cutting

b.      Spark from welding

c.       Flame from gas welding

d.      Electrical short circuit/overloading

e.      Faulty equipment/machines

f.        Spark from exhaust of internal combustion engines

g.      Radiant heat

h.      Smoking

There is a possibility of existence of more than one ignition source at a location. Every ignition point has an amount of energy limited to its type and maximum capacity, whereas every combustible

material has a specific requirement for ignition like flash point and ignition conditions. Based on the activities planned location of the ignition sources can be identified.

2.      Locating combustible material – In construction activities material is received at a location convenient for use based on two primary criteria i.e. space availability and minimum post receive movement. But, considering fire prevention and control requirements other criteria should also be considered such as;

a.      Ignition source

b.      Requirement of fire prevention

c.       Accessibility for fire control

d.      Means of containment for restricting spread.

Location of combustible material also provides for the location of fire sources required to identification of controlling fire hazards and containing outbreak along with formulation of SOPs and emergency response.

3.      Determination of Class of fire: The fire in the combustible material will define the Class they belong to i.e. Class A/B/C/D as per national and international standards. This classification along with the fire load of each combustible material will be basis of determining amount of fire extinguishing medium needed and type of fire fighting system required. Fire extinguishing medium also called agent commonly used in construction are water, Chemical/Mechanical Foam Compound mixture, Carbon Dioxide (CO2) and Dry Chemical Powder (DCP).

When the construction is in initial stage for most of the construction sites and in the construction activities of projects like road, canal, bridge, etc. where structure itself does not have firefighting system required during its use, portable firefighting system is used. Some of the portable fires fighting systems used in such construction sites are as under:

a)      Fire extinguishers

b)      Fire tenders

c)       Trolley mounted fire pump

d)      Fire buckets

e)      Fire beaters

In construction sites where the structure is designed to have its own firefighting system during its use, at later stages the system constructed can be used for firefighting. Firefighting systems in such structures are as under:

a)      Fire hydrant

b)      Fire hose

c)       Sprinklers

d)      All firefighting system listed under previous condition.

If fire extinguishers are provided care should be taken to ensure the required it is suitable for the class of fire, capacity and quantity requirements, failing which may result to failure in fire control.

4.      Fire Load calculation: Fire load also termed as fire load density is defined as the heat energy that could be released per square meter of the floor area, by the complete combustion of the contents of the unit area and any combustible parts of the unit therein.

Total fire load is the total amount of energy that could be released by complete combustion of the combustible material in an area. This can be calculated using following formula:

Q = ∑ kimihci where, Q = Total fire load in (MJ or KJ)

ki = proportion of the content or building component i that can burn mi = mass of item i (kg)

hci = calorific value of the item i (MJ/kg or KJ/kg)

Whereas,

Fire load or Fire load density =                                               Total Fire Load                   

Area under consideration

There are two types of fire load i.e. localized fire load and distributed fire load. Localized fire load determined the concentrated of the combustible material mostly in storage locations, whereas distributed fire load is the total fire load in the site. For the construction sites at initial stage localized fire load is vital, but by the end the distributed fire load also contributes significantly.

Further, fire load can also be categorized as fixed fire load and contents fire load. Fixed fire load refers to the combustible material permanently positioned and becomes part of the structure, whereas contents fire load refers to the material occupying the area/compartment.

Fire load can be calculated in following ways:

a)      Using calorific value of the combustible material if known

b)      Using wood equivalent factor of the combustible material from the list and multiplying it with the calorific value of wood (i.e. 18.5 MJ/kg)

c)       If data not available fire load can be calculated by multiplying mass of the materials using 15 MJ/kg for low calorific value materials like wood products, cotton, paper, etc. and for other material using 40 MJ/kg.

Fire load calculation provides for the area of concern based on fire load density, class of fire and fire spread rate. It also provides for the base of fire control design.

5.      Identification of probable fire emergencies – Another crucial step in planning is to identify, to the extent possible all types of fire emergency scenario, based on the information/data available from previous steps. These emergencies can arise from the self-actuation of a fire hazard, due to process or because of possibility of unsafe act including smoking.

As there is huge diversity in construction sector because different project/structure involves altogether different material, activities, terrain and manpower, hence the fire emergencies also vary from site-to-site. Some of the common fire emergencies in construction are as under:

a)      Fire in combustible solid material at storage.

b)      Fire in combustible solid material at intermediate storage

c)       Fire in fuel at storage.

d)      Fire in fuel during refilling.

e)      Fire in liquid or gaseous fuel driven machines/equipment’s

f)        Fire in combustible material installed in the structure.

g)      Fire due to electrical fault.

h)      Fire due to temporary lighting and luminaries.

i)         Fire in gas cylinder during operation.

j)         Fire in confined space.

k)       Fire at higher elevation.

There can be other fire emergencies specific to the construct site which can be determined based on the fire potential hazards so identified during previous steps. This step provides for the details required for developing emergency action plan.

6.      Requirement determination – Resources are not restricted to the restricted to the man, machine and material but extends to the system and procedures too. Based on the information/data collected/calculated, requirement for fire prevention and control is determined. The requirement includes the following:

a.      Quantity of firefighting medium/agent

b.      Type of firefighting system/gears/equipment’s

c.       Monitoring devices

d.      Location of firefighting system

e.      Area classification

f.        Standard Operating Procedure

g.      Qualification & skill requirement of workers and fire emergency response staff

h.      Strength of fire emergency response staff and their availability

i.         Segregation of stores and temporary structures

j.         Emergency Action Plan

k.       Rescue equipment’s

l.         Fire safety norms & instruction manuals

m.    Display of norms/instructions

7.      Resource availability – Resources so determined should be made available at the construction site at their desired/prominent locations. Special care should be given to its proper and optimum use by setting up a monitoring mechanism i.e. training, inspection and supervision. Also, maintenance of the fire fighting system, monitoring devices and rescue gears should be strictly followed as per the manufacturer’s manual and relevant standards to meet out the performance requirements.

8.      Training –Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) and Emergency Action Plan defines responsibilities of every sole in the site about their roles set therein for prevention and control of fire. The training should cover not only the technical (theoretical and practical) aspect of the fire prevention and control, but also include the information about their roles and responsibilities.

Accordingly, the training modules should be prepared. Training modules shall be

balanced with the theoretical and practical part of training. Separate training modules for different categories and level of workers should be prepared.

l)         Fire in fuel during refilling

m)    Fire in liquid or gaseous fuel driven machines/equipment’s

n)      Fire in combustible material installed in the structure

o)      Fire due to electrical fault

p)      Fire due to temporary lighting and luminaries

q)      Fire in gas cylinder during operation

r)        Fire in confined space

s)       Fire at higher elevation

There can be other fire emergencies specific to the construct site which can be determined based on the fire potential hazards so identified during previous steps. This step provides for the details required for developing emergency action plan.

9.      Requirement determination – Resources are not restricted to the restricted to the man, machine and material but extends to the system and procedures too. Based on the information/data collected/calculated, requirement for fire prevention and control is determined. The requirement includes the following:

a.      Quantity of firefighting medium/agent

b.      Type of firefighting system/gears/equipment’s

c.       Monitoring devices

d.      Location of firefighting system

e.      Area classification

f.        Standard Operating Procedure

g.      Qualification & skill requirement of workers and fire emergency response staff

h.      Strength of fire emergency response staff and their availability

i.         Segregation of stores and temporary structures

j.         Emergency Action Plan

k.       Rescue equipment’s

l.         Fire safety norms & instruction manuals

m.    Display of norms/instructions

10.  Resource availability – Resources so determined should be made available at the construction site at their desired/prominent locations. Special care should be given to its proper and optimum use by setting up a monitoring mechanism i.e. training, inspection and supervision. Also, maintenance of the fire fighting system, monitoring devices and rescue gears should be strictly followed as per the manufacturer’s manual and relevant standards to meet out the performance requirements.

11.  Training –Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) and Emergency Action Plan defines responsibilities of every sole in the site about their roles set therein for prevention and control of fire. The training should cover not only the technical (theoretical and practical) aspect of the fire prevention and control, but also include the information about their roles and responsibilities.

Accordingly, the training modules should be prepared. Training modules shall be

balanced with the theoretical & practical part of training. Separate training modules for different categories and level of workers should be prepared. 

Training should be provided by competent trainers to ensure the qualification and skill requirement determined should be achieved. The training should not be restricted to only one time i.e. initial, as the human nature is to get negligent, ignorant and reluctant over a period, hence refresher i.e. periodic retraining should be conducted with a separate training module developed in this regard.

5.    Control

Prevention is the primary goal in safety, but as due to issues mentioned initially and also

the fact that if hazard exists risk cannot be eliminated, one should be prepared for the    untoward incident because of preventive measures frailer or residual risk. The control has two elements:

6.      Management – The resources made available needs to be managed for effective implementation, optimum utilization and preparedness. This includes:

a.       Maintaining adequate resources supplies

b.       Ensure quality of resources

c.       Collect feedback to access performance and scope of improvement

d.       Review the requirement.

7.      Preparedness – In case of any fire outbreak/emergency addressing it during incipient or initial developing stage is important to minimize spread and losses. The effective preparedness depends upon following key elements:

a.       Early detection and alarm

b.       Prompt response

c.       Correct and adequate resources

d.       Coordination and communication

e.       Actions as per roles and responsibilities

f.         External support

The desired level of preparedness can be achieved by ensuring all elements listed above are at their best. This can be ascertained by following:

a)      Places with risk of fire outbreak shall be under round the clock monitoring either by continuously manning the location or by installing continuous monitoring devices.

b)      Manual or automatic alarm system to be provided.

c)       Routine inspection and maintenance including calibration for the detection and alarm system should be carried out to check its readiness.

d)      Conducting mock drills for all possible emergencies for assessing performance and identifying scope of improvement.

e)      Fire fighting gears and material should be maintained in good working condition and sufficiently available.

f)        Coordination and communication with command center, rescue team, medical team and external agencies is the most important element in fire emergency. This requires leadership quality, team spirit, communication skills, technical acquaintance and appropriate communication devices. Therefore, competent

   person equipped with suitable communication system shall be given responsibility for this.

g)      Everyone should be contributing as per the instructions of the in-charge of emergency response by fulfilling roles & responsibilities assigned to them.

h)      Arrangements for obtaining external support should also be made well in advance by seeking help from local administration or neighboring industries.

The approach in fire prevention and control purely depends upon the adequate planning and its implementation. Better planning and preparedness results to the effective prevention and control of fire. But, another step in fire prevention is learning from past incidents. Therefore, every fire incident shall be thoroughly investigated for identifying root causes and its contributing factors, so that preventive measures can be reviewed to avoid such reoccurrences.

Chapter 24

FIRST AID

The construction industry is one of the major industries having the highest rate of occupational diseases and work-related injury. The hazards associated with construction work include physical, chemical, biological, ergonomic, psycho-social along with different traumatic injuries from impact, slip, trip, and fall.

·        Chemical Hazards: Dusts, fibers, fumes, mists, vapours, gases

·        Physical Hazards: Heat and cold, noise, radiation, vibration and barometric pressure

·        Biological Hazards: Virus, bacteria, parasites and fungus, toxic substances of biological origin

·        Ergonomic Hazards: Repetitive Movement, Awkward Posture and grip, Bodily Reaction, etc.

·        Safety Hazards: Slip, Trip, Fall, Falling materials, Collapses, Electrical Accident, Mobile Plant

·        Social Issues: Migratory worker, limited social support, drug addiction, alcoholism, smoking

Prevention of Occupational Diseases and Injuries of the Construction Workers:

Primary Prevention: Action to avoid or remove the cause of a health problem before its onset

o    Health Promotion: Health Education on Prevention of Occupational Diseases, Environmental Modification, Nutritional Intervention, Lifestyle and behavioral Changes to stay healthy

o    Specific Protection: Elimination of Different Health Hazards at Construction Site, Risk Reduction approach by substitution, engineering & administrative control, Use of Proper Personal Protective Equipment’s, Training and Retraining of the workers on Health and Safety related issues, Immunization against vaccine preventable diseases

·         Secondary Prevention: Action to detect a health problem at an early stage and thus facilitate its cure or reduce or prevent its dissemination or effect in the long term

o    Early Diagnosis by Medical Surveillance and Management of the diseases

o First Aid Services and prompt medical response to occupational injuries

·        Tertiary Prevention: Action to reduce the chronic effects of a health problem by minimizing the functional impairment resulting from an occupational diseases or injuries

o Disability Limitation

o Rehabilitation

Evidence   Based   Guidelines   of   First   Aid for   Common Medical Emergencies at Construction Site:

During the construction activities, the workers are prone to various types of health issues, which need to be addressed in time.

Basic principles of First Aid:

·        Don’t panic

·        Calm and quiet

·        Call the ambulance / emergency services

·        Look your surroundings

·        Always Ask for help

·        If sure, do the needful

Few first aid measures are being discussed below-

1.    Abdominal injury

·         Don't panic, stay calm and call for help

·         Call ambulance help line number like 102 in India or any other medical helpline number

·         Loosen any tight clothing, especially at waist and neck

·         Try to control bleeding if any, by applying pressure

·         Cover any wound with sterile gauge piece

·         Get to the hospital immediately

·         Do not allow the patient to eat, drink or smoke

·         In case of penetrating injury do not try to pull or push stuck object if any

·         If not sure, don't do anything, just call for help and assist to get in hospital at earliest.

2.    Amputation

·         Don't panic, stay calm and call for help

·         Call ambulance help line number like 102 in India or any other medical helpline number

·         Apply direct pressure on the wound to control bleeding

·         Cover wound with sterile gauge piece or clean cloth and apply pressure bandage

·         Place the amputated part in a clean plastic bag

·         Place the plastic bag containing amputated part in another container with ice and mark with date and time of packaging with victim details

·         Get to the hospital immediately with victim and amputated part